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7 

Me PSYCHOLOGICAL REVIEW PUBLICATIONS WHOLE No, ISI 
NO. 4 192 

Sea! eRnhy OF PRing 

YY : 






Psychological Monographs \,"" 


A 
% 
LO o6tcAL SEM 


EDITED BY 


JAMES ROWLAND ANGELL, Yate University 
HOWARD C. WARREN, Princeton University (Review) 
JOHN B. WATSON, New York (J. of Exp. Psychol.) 
MADISON BENTLEY, University or Itirnois (Jndexr) 
S. W. FERNBERGER, University oF PENNSYLVANIA (Bulletin) 


The Personalities of the Socially and 
the Mechanically Inclined 


A Study of the Differences in Personality Between 
Men Whose Primary Interest is Social and Men 
Whose Primary Interest isin Machines 


BY 
:, 
MAX FREYD, Px.D. 


PSYCHOLOGICAL REVIEW COMPANY 
PRINCETON, N.J. 


AcEnts: G.E.STECHERT & CO., Lonpon (2 Star Yard, Carey St., W. C.) 
PARIS (16 rue de Condé) 





ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


Whatever merit this study may possess is due in great part to 
the liberal cooperation and assistance given by a number of people, 
and it is with pleasure that the writer acknowledges his indebted- 
ness and gratitude for this help. The staff of the School of Life 
Insurance Salesmanship, Dean T. M. Focke, of Case School of Ap- 
plied Science, and Dean J. T. Morris, of Carnegie Institute of 
Technology, cooperated in making their students available as sub- 
jects for this research. Considerable assistance in handling the 
data was given by Miss Mary Morrison, Miss Helen McKee, and 
Miss Hortense Purdy. Numerous helpful suggestions and criti- 
cisms were supplied by Dr. F. L. Wells, of the Boston Psycho- 
pathic Hospital, and Dr. L. L. Thurstone, of the Department of 
Psychology, and Dr. W. V. Bingham, Director of the Division of 
‘Cooperative Research of Carnegie Institute of Technology. 

To the staff of the Bureau of Personnel Research must go a 
large share of the credit for assistance. To acknowledge in detail 
the indebtedness of the writer for constant aid which the members 
of the Bureau staff stood ready to give, would be a lengthy though 
not unpleasant task. Among others, Mr. L. D. Anderson cooper- 
ated in allowing the use of unpublished data on the Will-Tempera- 
ment Test which he had collected, and Dr. C. E. Hansen aided 
materially in criticising the manuscript. To Dr. C. S. Yoakum, 
Director of the Bureau of Personnel Research, without whose con- 
stant advice and aid this study would have been almost impossible, 
goes a large share of the credit for its completion and present 
form. 


Digitized by the Internet Archive — 
in 2022 with funding from , 
Princeton Theological Seminary Library 


https://archive.org/details/personalitiesofsOOfrey 


INTRODUCTION 


This study was undertaken as a solution not to a practical prob- 
lem, but to one of a general psychological nature. Its purpose is to 
add to our knowledge of adult human personality. It was under- 
taken with the conviction that the study of trends of personality 
and agreements and disagreements in the reactions of adults to 
their environment over a period of time, was fundamental to and 
afforded richer and more valuable fields for psychological inquiry 
than the analysis of momentary mental states or acts. 

Specifically, this study seeks to determine the personality cor- 
relates of interest and ability (1) in handling or motivating human 
beings, and (2) in handling machines or inanimate objects. What 
is the interrelationship of the differences in personality, and to 
what extent do these differences connote types or extremes of per- 
- sonality ? 

In order to arrive at a solution of this problem, comparisons 
were made between salesmen on the one hand and students of en- 
gineering and mechanics on the other. Differences were studied by 
the use of tests, interest and personal history records, and ratings. 
Simple group comparisons were made in these measures. An ad- 
ditional statistical method, involving the intercorrelation of these 
measures, was adopted in order to arrive at a consistent picture of 
the extremes of divergence between the two groups of subjects. 

The results of the group comparisons lead to the conclusion that 
those who are interested in dealing with human beings (the sales- 
men) are differentiated from the students of mechanics by greater 
social ability, credulity or suggestibility, adaptability, excitability, 
self-confidence, talkativeness, present-mindedness, and good-na- 
ture. The students of mechanics show a greater tendency to be self- 
conscious, careful of details, inhibited and cautious, reticent, ab- 
sent-minded, and glum. They are more capable.of making fine co- 
ordinations, and excel in slow, painstaking, and accurate effort. 
There is no evidence for two corresponding sharply defined types 
of personality, but evidence points to the utility of recognizing “ex- 


vi INTRODUCTION 


tremes,” those few at the social extreme possessing all the traits of 
the completely socially adapted person, and those at the mechan- 
ical extreme possessing all of the traits of the person who is com- 
pletely devoted to machines or inanimate objects. Most individuals 
will deviate from an absolutely neutral state toward one or the 
other extreme, depending upon which of the two opposed classes 
of traits is dominant in the make-up of their personality. A use of 
this distinction is provided in the present study by the presentation 
of a composite scoring method which discriminates effectively be-- 
tween the socially adapted and the mechanically adapted. | 

At a later date the writer expects to show the relation of these 
results to the concepts of the introvert and the extrovert, which 
have been taken over by many psychologists. There is a remarkable 
correspondence between the traits described in the theoretical liter- 
ature as native to the introvert and the extrovert and those which 
differentiate the mechanically inclined from the socially inclined, 
the mechanically inclined corresponding to the introvert and the 
socially inclined to the extrovert. The greater objectivity of a dis- 
tinction based on ability to motivate people and ability to handle 
machines warrants the use of this criterion for distinguishing the 
extrovert from the introvert, rather than the criterion of facing | 
reality or withdrawing fromit. 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


CHAPTER |, The Problem and Modes of Attack 
The Problem 
Procedure 
Subjects 
Forms Used 
Cuapter II. Group Comparisons Based on Test Scores 
The Method 
Test VI. General Intelligence 
Test IX. Will-Temperament 
Directed Association Test 
Series 12. Kent-Rosanoff Free Association Test 
Summary 
CuaptTer III. Group Comparisons Based on Answers to 
Questionnaires 
The Method 
Description of the Questionnaires 
Results 
Summary 
CHAPTER IV. Group Comparisons Based on Ratings 
The Method 
Results 
Summary 
Cuapter V. Intercorrelations of Tests and Ratings 
The Theory of General Ability 
Method Employed in this Study 
Results 
Summary 
CHAPTER VI, Application of Results in a Total Score 
The Method: 
Results 
Summary 
CuapTer VII. Summary and Conclusions 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 


OW # 





GHA DER | 


THE PROBLEM AND MODES OF ATTACK 


THE PROBLEM 


The great complexity of behavior of the adult individual seems 
to offer an almost insurmountable barrier to systematization, yet 
some sort of an approach must be made toward a classification of 
people if psychology is to advance toward its goal of the prediction 
and control of human behavior. The approach to this goal through 
the study of instincts has failed, for the moment at least, to provide 
materials for the study of adults; if the reader is in doubt, he need 
only review the teeming literature on the subject and note the con- 
tradictory statements and ex-cathedra pronouncements with which 
it abounds. Genetic studies of instincts reveal little for the under- 
standing of adults; the instincts become so disguised and are ex- 
pressed in such a multitude of ways as to render any instinctive 
explanations of conduct mere broad generalizations. Factors other 
than instinct, such as immediate heredity and early environment, 
are also important in determining the psychological make-up of 
the adult. If-we are to interest ourselves in adult psychology, we 
must take the adult as he is, the resultant of a number of forces 
acting upon him. We must proceed to classify adults as to both 
qualitative and quantitative differences, just as the zoologist classi- ° 
fies his specimens into phyla, classes, orders, and so forth. Adults 
have been classified on scales ranging from genius to idiocy, and 
from sanity to insanity, presumably quantitative and qualitative 
differentiations. The classifications of adults into types of person- 
ality’ has met with indifferent success. 

A certain common-sense attitude toward types of personality 
cannot be disregarded. Whether as psychologists or laymen, we 
1 By personality I mean the sum-total of the reaction tendencies of an individual 


toward his fellow men, as opposed to his reactions toward inanimate objects. 
Character is personality judged by the moral standards of a particular group. 


2 MAX FREYD 


speak of typical ministers, typical pugilists, typical ward bosses, 
and so forth. Such individuals constitute types in the sense that 
they had common interests which led them into the same line of 
work, where their training put the finishing touches of uniformity 
on them. While there may not be fundamental psychological dif- 
ferences between people belonging to diverse types, the differences 
are important, popularly recognized, and relatively permanent. 

In approaching the problem of human types from the psycho- 
logical standpoint, we are immediately confronted with a variety 
of difficult questions. Is a type distinguished by one central trait, 
or by acluster of traits? In how many traits must individuals agree 
in order to belong to the same type? How close a similarity in any 
given measured trait shall be accepted as a criterion of agreement? 
How can the traits be best measured ? How important relatively are 
heredity and environment as factors which place men in types? 
What is the final proof of the existence of types? The difficulties 
pointed out show the need for experimental evidence. | 

The common psychological point of view is against the existence 
of types. If we set up as our criterion of the existence of types that 
the individuals belonging to them shall be similar in even the re- 
motest trait, we may as well let the question of types rest as far» 
as any practical applications of our findings are concerned, for the 
number of persons falling into types if this criterion were main- 
tained would be infinitesimal. If a limited number of traits were 
accepted as the distinguishing marks of a type, the most favorable 
place to find types would be among those engaged in the same kind 
of work. If it can be shown that individuals engaged in the same 
occupation are not only in agreement in their abilities, interests, 
and personal history, but also possess the same traits of personali- 
ty, the results will not only be of theoretical interest, but will be of 
immediate application in vocational guidance. 

For the purpose of investigating the existence of types among 
vocationally selected people, the writer has made a study of dif- 
ferences between salesmen on the one hand and students of en- 
gineering and mechanics on the other. These two opposed groups 
are characterized most prominently by a social inclination and an 
ability to motivate others in the case of the salesmen, and a primary 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 3 


interest in mechanics on the part of the students of engineering 
and mechanics. 


PROCEDURE 


A very good statistical consideration of psychological types is to 
be found in the third volume of Thorndike’s Educational Psy- 
chology (20). He outlines two ways of discovering types: 

“The first is by direct measurement of individuals in toto, and 
of their differences 

“The second way . . . is by discovering what each amount 
possessed of any trait implies concerning the individual’s condition 
in other traits.”” (pp. 347-348) 

In a detailed consideration of these methods and the results ob- 
tained with their use, Thorndike comes to the conclusion that the 
data at hand do not warrant the statement that types exist; that 
the most probable condition of an individual is one of mediocrity 
in most traits, with slight variations toward extremes in the re- 
mainder of the traits. His main argument against the existence 
of types is that distributions of various traits or combinations of 
traits are unimodal, whereas if types existed each type would be 
represented by a mode in the distribution curve. The unimodal dis- 
tribution curves argue for a single type—mediocrity. 

Regarding the first method, Thorndike states that no individual 
has ever been, measured in toto. Even in cases of the most thorough 
measurements no great similarities between individuals have been 
found. The difficulty of the first method leads us naturally to the 
second. Why measure all the individual’s traits if one trait may 
stand for the amount possessed of any of a number of traits which 
intercorrelate highly? Thorndike’s conclusion on this point, based 
on such data as he could obtain, is as follows (p. 362): 

“Tt is very, very hard to find any case of a negative correlation 
between desirable mental functions. Divergence toward what we 
vaguely call better adaptation to the world in any respect seems to 
be positively related to better adaptation in all or nearly all re- 
spects. And this seems especially true of the relations between 
original capacities.” 

A great deal hinges on the use of the word “desirable”; and in 


6 MAX FREYD 


SUBJECTS 


The men who served as subjects for this study fall into two 
general classes : those who are mechanically inclined and those who 
are socially inclined. Each of the classes may be subdivided into 
primary and secondary groups. A wide series of test measure- 
ments, answers to questionnaires, and ratings were obtained on the 
two primary groups. Where results were available on the second- 
ary groups they were used as checks on the results obtained with | 
the primary groups. 

In order to obviate any possible sex differences, only men were 
used in this study, with the exception of a very small percentage of 
one of the secondary groups. 

Primary Mechanical Group. This group consisted of thirty 
seniors in the College of Industries at Carnegie Institute of Tech- 
nology, tested in the fall of 1921. These men were in the fourth 
year of a curriculum designed to prepare them for executive posi- 
tions in industry. Their courses were practical, and to a large ex- 
tent consisted of laboratory work in the occupations in which they 
aimed to become executives. The departments of instruction in- 
cluded the following: Building Erection and Estimating; Elec-— 
trical Equipment and Construction; Cost and Factory Account- 
ing; Machinery Production; Power Plant Operation and Manage- 
ment; Printing Industry; and Heating, Ventilating, and Sanitary 
Equipment. While these men are prepared to become industrial 
executives, the problem of motivating others forms a very small 
proportion of their duties. It is safe to say that their success is 
largely dependent on their technical information and ability, and 
that their interests and abilities are predominantly technical and 
mechanical, rather than social. Ability to motivate others does not 
enter into their tasks in the sense that it enters into the work of the 
salesman. Their prestige as executives will rest mainly on their 
technical background. To motivate others they need only give or- 
ders. The salesman, on the other hand, requires a complex social 
ability in order that he may motivate others, and can in no sense 
rely on authority in accomplishing that motivation. He must rely 
on his own persuasive ability and personality, and must be actuated 
by an interest in motivating people. In their daily behavior the in- 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 7 


dustries seniors displayed markedly the fact that their abilities 
were overwhelmingly mechanical rather than social, in comparison 
with the groups of salesmen who were studied. 

Primary Social Group. The social groups consisted in all cases 
of salesmen. The primary group was composed of thirty men 
chosen from the School of Life Insurance Salesmanship, Fall 
Class, 1921-22, at Carnegie Institute of Technology. This school 
consists of a course of eleven weeks’ duration, which is repeated 
three times a year. It draws representative men with sales interests 
from the various corners of the country. The thirty men chosen 
out of the class of approximately sixty were those who stood high- 
est in the tests developed by Ream (17) for the prediction of life 
insurance salesmanship. The probability is high that these men 
will sell more life insurance than the remaining thirty men in the 
class. To some extent the tests used in the selective process were 
such as to cause wider divergences between this group and the 
primary mechanical group than would be expected if no selective 
process were used. In most cases, however, the results of secondary 
groups were available as checks on our differences. The sales 
primary group seems well fitted to represent individuals whose 
interests and abilities are mainly social rather than mechanical in 
nature. The commodity which they sell is intangible and depends 
for its appeal largely on the personality and persistence of the sales- 
man. These salesmen have to make as many as forty calls in order 
to make a sale. In their social contacts the members of this group 
displayed a more pleasing personality than the industries seniors. 
There were, of course, a few exceptions, but the statement holds 
for the majority of the group. 

Secondary Mechanical Groups. The following groups of me- 
chanically inclined men were used in obtaining additional evidence 
on the results obtained with the primary group: 

Forty-three seniors in Mechanical Engineering, Class of 1922, 
Case School of Applied Science, tested in December, 1921. 

Seventeen seniors in the College of Industries, Class of 1921, 
Carnegie Institute of Technology, tested in May, 1921. 

Eighteen seniors in Mechanical Engineering, Class of 1921, 
Carnegie Institute of Technology, tested in May, 1921. 


8 MAX FREYD 


Nineteen seniors in Commercial Engineering, Class of 1921, 
Carnegie Institute of Technology, tested in May, 1921. 

Secondary Social Groups. The following sales groups provided 
results which were used to supplement the results obtained with 
the primary sales group: 

Thirty men, constituting the remainder of the School of Life 
Insurance Salesmanship, Fall Class, 1921-22, Carnegie Institute of 
Technology, tested in October, 1921. 

Seventy-six members of the School of Life Insurance Salesman- 
ship, Spring Class, 1920-21, tested in April, 1921. ; 

Fifty members of the School of Life Insurance Salesmanship, 
Winter Class, 1921-22, tested in January, 1922. 

One hundred and thirty-five life insurance salesmen with the 
Edward A. Woods Company, of Pittsburgh, tested in July, 1921. 

Eighty-one salesmen with the Burroughs Adding Machine Com- 
pany. | 
Twenty-one salesmen with the Cleveland Discount Company, 
mainly bond salesmen, tested in November, 1921. 

Twenty-four salesmen with the Harrison Real Estate Company, 
of Buffalo, New York, mainly bond and real estate salesmen, tested 
in November, 1921. 

Forty-nine salesmen with the Procter and Gamble Company, 
tested in January, 1922. | 

An additional group on whom limited results were available con- 
sisted of thirty-three seniors in the Westinghouse Technical Night | 
School, Class of 1921, East Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. These men 
correspond roughly to the Industries groups, but the situation is 
complicated by the fact that among them were numbers of sales- 
men employed by the Westinghouse Company who were receiving 
training in technical work in order to enable them to sell more ef- 
fectively. Very few of the men indicated on their test blanks the 
positions they occupied, and we are consequently at a loss as to the 
inclinations of the majority of the men. 


Forms UseEp 


For purposes of comparing the groups several tests and ques- 
tionnaires and a rating scale were used. A number of factors op- 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 9 


erated to limit the scope of the program of forms, among which 
were: the limit of two hours placed on the program; the fact that 
only group tests could be used; the range of test forms used in the 
Bureau of Personnel Research; and the availability of results with 
the use of the same forms on the secondary groups. 

Tests. While the principal stress is laid on differences in person- 
ality, an intelligence test was included as a check on the factor of 
general intelligence in the group differences found. The test used 
for this purpose was Bureau of Personnel Research Test VI, a 
spiral-omnibus test with items chosen from the Army Alpha Ex- 
amination (9g). The test was given with a fifteen minute time limit. 

A second test was Bureau Test IX, a group modification of the 
Downey Will-Temperament Test (4, 16). This test series consists 
of eleven parts, yielding with the use of ratios, twelve scores. This 
test series was originated by Downey for individual testing of a 
-number of volitional and temperamental traits, using modifications 
of-handwriting for the purpose. In the present study use was made 
of the fourth edition of a group modification of the test developed 
by the staff of the Bureau of Personnel Research. 

A third test was the Kent-Rosanoff free association test ar- 
ranged for group testing. In this form, instead of giving his re- 
sponse orally, the subject responds by writing the first word called 
to mind by the stimulus word. The stimulus words are printed in 
a list; one signal serves to start the individual on the list and one 
to stop him. The chief interest in the test lay in the coefficient of 
commonality of response, and in the classification of responses 
made by Wells (22, 24). 

A fourth test, which I have chosen to call a Directed Association 
Test, was intended to measure ability at directed thinking, the sup- 
position being that this ability could be measured by the rapidity 
and brevity with which an individual completed a chain associa- 
tion between two dissimilar words. 

Questionnaires. A number of exhaustive questionnaires cov- 
ering items of personal history, interests, attitudes, etc., were used 
in order to supplement the measures yielded by the tests. Material 
for. these questionnaires was drawn largely from previous lists pre- 
pared in the Bureau of Personnel Research, and from the psychi- 


10 MAX FREYD 


atric and psychoanalytic literature. The fields covered by the sev- 
eral questionnaires are roughly the following: 

Questionnaire 1. Early Personal History. 

Questionnaire 2. Vocational Interests. 

Questionnaire 3. Avocational Interests. 

Questionnaire 4. Likes and Dislikes. 

Questionnaire 5. Beliefs. 

Rating Scale. A graphic rating scale (6) was constructed in 
order to measure a number of traits some of which presumably 
were brought out by the tests and questionnaires. With the use of 
the same scale, self-ratings and ratings by friends and acquaint- 
ances were obtained, and the groups compared in each of the traits 
on the scale. The measurements yielded by this scale were also used 
as a partial check on the validity of the tests, and as materials 
for the intercorrelation of traits in discovering constellations of 
traits. 

The entire series of measures was obtained on the two primary 
groups and on the seniors in Mechanical Engineering at Case 
School of Applied Science. Measures of the remaining groups 
were incomplete, lacking in every case the ratings, the Directed As- 
sociation Test, and Questionnaires I, 3, and 5. In some groups 
additional measures were missing. 

More detailed discussion of the forms used will be found in the 
following three chapters. 


CHAPTER II 


GROUP COMPARISONS BASED ON TEST SCORES 


THe METHOD 


The first method of studying personality types, that of making 
group comparisons in distributions of abilities, offers no great 
theoretical or statistical difficulties. This procedure was followed 
in the present instance in order to form an estimate of the differ- 
ences between the two primary groups in the selected measures of 
capacities. Where test results were available on primary and sec- 
ondary groups, these were combined. The central tendencies of the 
salesmen and of the mechanics students and the standard error of 
the difference in central tendencies were then computed, enabling 
us to place a statistical estimate on the reality of the difference in 
' central tendencies of the two groups. Where test results were avail- 
able only on the primary groups, the less rigid statistical device 
was employed of computing the range of scores of the middle 50 
per cent of each group in each test (interquartile range), and plac- 
ing a rough observational estimate on the reliability of the differ- 
ences. Statistically, if the median of one group is coincident with 
the first or third quartile of the other group, or, if 25 per cent of 
one group lie beyond the median of the other group, the group dif- 
ference is quite significant; with thirty cases in each group the 
probability is approximately one in fifty that with further sampling 
the medians will coincide, or that instead of 25 per cent, 50 per cent 
or more of the one group will lie beyond the median of the other 
group. With one hundred cases the probability is reduced prac- 
tically to zero. Where 25 per cent or less of one group lie beyond 
the median of the other, we shall speak of the difference in that 
ability as very significant. A rough estimate must be placed on dif- 
ferences which fall short of this criterion. 

We cannot, in the absence of correlation coefficients with reliable 


12 MAX FREYD 


ratings, state dogmatically what function is measured by each test, 
but we can draw a common-sense analogy between the functions 
involved in the performance of the test and certain psychological 
concepts. Outlines of experiments for laboratory courses in psy- 
chology (the cradle of psychological tests) do not hesitate to name 
the functions for which each experiment is intended, such as atten- 
tion, volition, suggestion, association, and the like. In the following 
discussion of results, I have given the interpretation placed on the 
tests by the originators or those who have subsequently made use © 
of them. In Chapter 5 mention is made of correlation coefficients 
obtained between tests and ratings, but in as much as the ratings 
were secured under conditions more suitable for rough group com- 
parisons than for correlations with tests, they should not be given 
too much weight in this connection. The rating scale, moreover, 
does not exhaust the number of possible abilities: there is always 
the possibility that the test would correlate most highly with a trait 
not on the scale. These coefficients will be mentioned in connection 
with the interpretations of the tests. 

The comparisons were first made between the two primary 
groups: seniors in the College of Industries at Carnegie Institute 
of Technology, and thirty salesmen selected from the School of 
Life Insurance Salesmanship. Where the differences seemed sig- 
nificant and the same measures were at hand on secondary groups 
listed in the preceding chapter, the additional results are given.* 


Test VI. GENERAL INTELLIGENCE 


Group comparisons in this test are interesting mainly in so far 
as they corroborate the aim to eliminate the factor of general in- 
telligence in the group comparisons. The test consists of 184 items 
selected from six of the tests in the Army Alpha Examination, 
namely, arithmetical problems, synonym-antonym, disarranged 
sentences, number series completion, analogies, and information. 
The directions for all the different forms of tasks are assembled 
at the beginning of the test. In the body of the test the items are 
so arranged as to become progressively more difficult. Each type 


1 The test figures for the secondary groups in Test IX were supplied by Mr» 
L. D. Anderson from unpublished data. 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 13 


of item occurs at given intervals. The term “spiral-omnibus” has 
been applied to this test to distinguish it from the earlier “‘cycle- 
omnibus” tests in which the various types of task recurred without 
any progressive increase in difficulty. Its superiority over the army 
form lies in the greater ease of administering this form and the 
briefer time required for testing. 

In administering the test, four minutes are allowed for reading 
the directions. At a signal the subjects commence the test and work 
uninterruptedly for fifteen minutes. Originally twenty-five minutes 
were allowed, but correlations with scores in the fifteen minute 
period were so high (++.96 and +.97) as to warrant using the 
shorter time limit (9). The different types of items are scored in 
the same manner as in the Army Alpha Examination, but a sepa- 
rate score for each type of item is not obtained. 

The purpose of this test is to measure an individual’s mental 
capacity or general intelligence. “By intelligence is meant ability to 
. think quickly, accurately, and independently; to comprehend new 
problems; to meet new and difficult situations; to understand and 
to be able to carry in mind complicated directions, etc.” (14, p. 
425) 

Below are given the interquartile ranges of the two primary 
groups and the Case School Seniors in Test VI. 


OF a, Q, 


’ Succ. |. 1. salesmen 107.5 117.6 130.0 
Industries seniors 07.5 110.3 130.3 
Mech. Eng. seniors 105.0 115.0 130.0 


The differences are not so great as to place the groups on dif- 
ferent mental levels. Test VI correlates uniformly low with the 
other tests used in this study. We may conclude, therefore, that 
we have test results on factors other than conceptual intelligence. 


Test [X. WILL-TEMPERAMENT 


Although the Downey Will-Temperament Test is of compara- 
tively recent advent in the field of psychological tests, the litera- 
ture upon it is already quite extensive. A thoroughgoing discussion 
of the test is, therefore, not in place in this study. The present dis- 
cussion will be limited to a brief exposition of the form of the 


14 MAX FREYD 


Will-Temperament Test used in this study, and to a reconsidera- 
tion of the traits which it aims to measure. 

The Will-Temperament Test, as originated by Downey (4), is 
a series of twelve individual tests intended to measure volitional 
characteristics, so arranged that when the deciles are plotted the 
volitional pattern or profile of the subject becomes apparent, and 
his classification with regard to three general volitional types may 
be determined; the “hair-trigger” type; the wilful, aggressive 
type; and the sluggish, painstaking type. The extent of each of 
these three tendencies in his volitional make-up is supposed to be 
measured by three or four tests. Handwriting is the medium by 
which Downey arrives at this analysis, but in so doing 2G makes 
no graphological assumptions. 


“It may be taken for granted that will-functions must be tested 
largely through some form of motor reaction . . . The motor 
activity required for the present purpose should be a common one 
and one which leaves behind it a permanent record. The one I 
have chosen for exploitation is handwriting; I have introduced 
modifications of it such as speeded, retarded, blocked, disguised, 
and automatic writing . . . In addition to writing activity I 
have included tests involving choice in which the intellectual factor 
is subordinate to the impulsive one. . . . The choice of par- 
ticular tests has been motivated largely by previous experimenta- 
tion on handwriting and, to a lesser degree, on muscle-reading. 
; It should be emphatically stated that the present exploita- 
tion of handwriting makes little use of graphic individuality and 
no use whatever of graphological assumptions. It utilizes the writ- 
ing movement merely as a convenient method for study of compli- 
cations of motor impulses.” (4, pp. 8-9) 


Downey’s original test series was intended for individual test- 
ing, but she as well as other psychologists have arranged group 
modifications of the series. The pioneer in this field in the Bureau 
of Personnel Research is H. A. Richmond. The group form of the 
test in use by the Bureau has passed into its fifth edition and has 
been given to over two thousand persons. 

The fourth edition of the Bureau modification of the test series 
was used in this study. It consists of eleven parts, which with the 
use of ratios yield twelve separate scores. The main difference be- 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 15 


tween this series and the series for individual testing lies in the 
substitution of a time limit for a work limit. Although the parts 
are administered in their numerical order, the scores are obtained 
and arranged according to Downey’s three-fold classification, 
which has been revised in the light of the intercorrelations of the 
parts. The order in which the scores are presented is as follows: 


Parts I and Io. 
Part 4, ratio. 
Part 3. 

Farts.0: 

Part 6, disguises. 


Hatiwant 
Part 11. 
Part 9, ratio. 


Parts 2: 
Hare 
Part a7 
Part 6, letters. 


The first five scores are designed to measure speed of action and 
decision, the next three aggressiveness and impulsiveness, and the 
last four capacity for slow, painstaking effort and for making cer- 
tain motor coordinations. The scores will be discussed in the above 
order, rather than in their numerical order in the test booklet. In 
designating the functions measured by these parts, I have relied on 
the interpretations of Ream (16) and Downey (4).? Some addi- 
tional scores were obtained and are presented at the conclusion of 
this discussion. 


Parts 1 and 10. Normal Speed of Writing. This is measured by 
averaging the number of letters written in Parts 1 and 1o. In each 
of these parts the subject is required to write the words “United 
States” repeatedly in his usual style and at his usual speed. Thirty 
seconds are allowed for each part. This score correlates —.37 with 
ratings on cautiousness. (This figure and the coefficients which 


will be given in connection with some of the remaining parts and 
2 More complete descriptions of the parts are to be found in two publications 
by Ream (16, 17). Copies of the test booklet may be obtained from the Bureau 
of Personnel Research, Carnegie Institute of Technology. . 


16 MAX FREYD 


tests, were abstracted from the unpublished eighth table mentioned 
in Chapter 5.) 

The results reveal small group differences. The following table 
shows the results for the two primary groups. The figures for the 
secondary groups are practically identical with these. 

Q, Q, Q, 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 54 65 69 
Industries seniors 61 66 70 

Part 4, ratio. Ratio of Normal to Speeded Writing. In Part 4 
the subject is required to write the words “United States” re- 
peatedly as quickly as he can. Sixty seconds are allowed, and the 
score is in terms of the number of letters written. Part 4, ratio, is 
obtained by dividing the number of letters written in Part 10 (nor- 
mal speed) by the number of letters written in Part 4 (greatest 
speed.) The ratio is supposed to be an index of the subject’s ten- 
dency to work at his greatest possible speed in his ordinary tasks, 
in other words, his freedom from load (4, p. 20). 

Group differences are practically non-existent in this part. The 
following results are practically duplicated by the secondary 
groups. 

2h Q, Q, 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 35 39 43 
Industries seniors 36 a7 43 

Part 3. Speed in Checking Better Traits. In Part 3 thirty-six 
pairs of opposite traits are presented, as careful-careless, accurate- 
inaccurate, effeminate-manly, etc. The subject is required to go 
down the list and check the one trait in each pair which he believes 
is the better in most circumstances. Forty-five seconds are allowed, 
and the score is in terms of the number of traits checked. 

Although the type of decision involved is not entirely objective, 


the personal element has been eliminated as far as possible. By an. 


objective decision is meant one that is free from any reference to 
the reagent himself, not necessarily one that is free from internal 
facilitations. That the test calls for no great individual judgment 
is shown by the fact that the men in both primary groups agree 
consistently in their checks. No group differences appeared in this 
test, taken as a measure of social standards. 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 17 


Results are given below and in the table at the end of this chap- 


fcr. 
Q, Op: Q, 


Mechanical groups 25.0 30.0 34.0 
Industries seniors 26.0 29.0 33.0 
Misc. salesmen 18.3 23.0 29.6 
Life ins. salesmen 19.4 25.4 B12 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 21.0 27.0 34.0 


The second and fifth groups in the above table are the primary 
groups. The “mechanical groups” include the primary and sec- 
ondary groups; that is, the figures for the second group above are 
also contained in those for the first group, but form a small pro- 
portion of that group. Similarly, the thirty successful life insur- 
ance salesmen are included with the “life insurance salesmen,”’ 
forming a small proportion of that group. The Westinghouse 
Technical Night School seniors are omitted in giving these test re- 
sults. 

There is a pronounced tendency for the mechanically inclined 
people to show greater speed in this test than the salesmen. All 
men in the primary and secondary groups considered, the chances 
are I in infinity that a real difference does not exist between the 
mechanically inclined and the salesmen. 

Part 9. Speed in Checking Personal Traits. Here the same list 
as in Part 3 is presented but the decision is made subjective by re- 
quiring the reagent to indicate which of each pair he himself pos- 
sesses. Sixty seconds are allowed, and the score is the number of 
traits checked. 

In this test we find that the differences between our primary 
groups are reversed when the secondary groups are taken into 
consideration. The primary sales group checks more traits than 
the primary mechanical group, but with all cases considered the 
difference is reversed and we find the mechanical groups differing 
significantly from the sales groups in that they check more traits. 

Results are given below and at the end of this chapter. 

Q, Q, Q, 


Mechanical groups 20.7 25.5 31.5 
Industries seniors 21.0 24.0 30.0 
Misc. salesmen - 16.6 21.5 26.5 
Life ins. salesmen 16.5 21.0 26.5 


Succ. 1. i. salesmen 22.0 26.0 30.0 


18 MAX FREYD 


Part 6, disguises. Ability to Disguise Handwriting. The direc- 
tions for Part 6 are as follows: 

Write the words “United States” in the space below, trying to 
disguise your handwriting in as many ways as possible and as 
much as you can. Try out any disguise you can think of but do not 
print. Take as much time as you need and copy the words as many 
times as necessary. 

Keep trying until you feel that you have made a copy that even 
a handwriting expert could not identify as yours. 

Three minutes are allowed for this part. The score for Part 6, 
disguises, is the number of different successful disguises. In scor- 
ing the part, a stencil is used on which are examples of successful 
and unsuccessful disguises. One great difficulty with this part is 
the lack of an objective method of scoring. Downey calls the 
equivalent test in her series a test of flexibility, a term intended to 
cover the ability to modify one’s routine activities, to dramatize, to 
exercise imagination (4, p. 22). 

Results are given below and at the end of this chapter. 


Q, Q, Q; 
Mechanical groups 27 2.9 4.0 
Industries seniors ims 2.2 2.8 
Misc. salesmen 2.3 3.3 4.6 
Life ins. salesmen 2.4 3.5 4.5 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 2.4 3.5 4.3 


The table above is presented graphically in Fig. 1. There is a 


Industries Seniors meee accor 
Misc. Salesmen RUSS ES 
Life Ins. Salesmn SE TE TEE EES 
30 Life Ins. Salesman Guim 
t] t 4 e ’ ‘ ’ 
Score 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 
HG. I 


Interquartile Ranges of Scores in Part 6, disguises, Test IX. 
Vertical lines indicate medians 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 19 


significant tendency for salesmen to excel in this sort of perform- 
ance. All cases considered, the probability is 1 in 2301 that a real 
difference does not exist. 


Part 5. Enlargement of Writing under Distraction. The page 
for Part 5 has a series of three numbered dots, one below the 
other. The subject is required to place his pencil on the first dot 
and write the words “United States” once while looking at the 
ceiling. He then repeats this with the second dot. These two per- 
formances do not enter into any scores. The directions with regard 
to the third dot are in brief as follows: 

This time it will be much more difficult. Listen carefully. You 
are to do two things: write “United States’ repeatedly and at the 
same time count the number of taps I make on the table. Write one 
phrase just below the other. Watch me while writing and count- 
ing, and when the tapping stops quit writing, and record the num- 
ber of taps. Ready. Place your pencil on dot number 3. 

The number of taps made is immaterial, and no record is made 
of the accuracy of the guesses. The taps are made about one per 
second, an occasional tap being skipped to avoid regularity. At the 
end of twenty-five seconds the tapping is stopped and the subject 
is told to quit writing. The performance with regard to dot 3 is 
then repeated farther down the page. 

The score for Part 5 is the sum of two ratios. The first ratio is 
obtained as follows: The longest “United States” in each of the 
above two trials is measured in millimeters and the two lengths are 
averaged. This is then divided by the length in millimeters of a 
“United States” of average length in Part 1. The purpose of this 
ratio is to determine the degree to which the subject has enlarged 
his handwriting under distraction. The second ratio is obtained by 
averaging the number of letters written in each of the above two 
trials and dividing this average by the average number of letters 
written in Parts 1 and 10. This is to determine the degree to which 
the subject has speeded up under distraction. The sum of the two 
ratios is the score for Part 5 (Enlargement under distraction). 


This part is supposed to distinguish between impulsiveness or 


20 MAX FREYD 


explosiveness of will as opposed to inhibition, or between the 
choleric and the phlegmatic temperament. Downey says of her 
parallel test: 

“The utilization of change in size of writing under distraction 
of attention as an index of motor impulsion was suggested by pre- 
vious work both on automatic writing and on muscle-reading. The 
tendency to magnify or to decrease handwriting size not only un- 
der conditions of distraction, but even with such a simple change 
in conditions as results from withdrawal of visual control in writ- 
ing with the eyes closed is an individual characteristic of consider- 
able significance. Extensive experiment with subjects had shown 
me that it was quite possible to anticipate the value of an individual 
as a guide in muscle-reading by his tendency to magnification of 
graphic movement when inhibitory checks were removed. One’s 
value as a guide in muscle-reading is in turn significant of the de- 
gree to which one possesses the explosive in contrast to the in- 
hibited temperament” (4, pp. 23-24). 

Results are given below and at the end of this chapter. In the 
table below the life insurance salesmen include only those attend- 
ing the School of Life Insurance Salesmanship. The remaining 
insurance salesmen were not given this test. 


Q, Q, U, 
Mechanical groups 1.78 2.02 2.23 
Industries seniors 1.62 1.80 2.05 
Misc. salesmen 1.82 2.04 2.24 
Life ins. salesmen (schools only) 1.72 1.07 2.25 
Suce. 1. i. salesmen 1.85 2.11 2.20 


A very significant tendency for the primary sales group to excel. 
in this test (show greater impulsion) is not corroborated by the 
results of the secondary groups. 

Part 11. Assurance in Visual Memory. A large chart with the 
following characters on it is exposed for one and one-half minutes, 
with instructions to study it carefully and try to remember it. 


j IX N 
F 5 any 
VI d 8 


At the end of this period the chart is withdrawn and the subjects 
are given time to answer the questions in Part 11. The latter is in 
form of a true and false statement test on the characters in ‘the 
chart. The following is an illustration. 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 21 


1. There were eight capital letters in the chart. TRUE FALSE 
The subjects are required to underline either TRUE or FALSE. 
If they are absolutely sure of the answer they are asked to doubly 
underline the word. There are fifteen such statements. The fol- 
lowing paragraph appears after the last statement : 


If you finish before time is called, you may check your accuracy 
in the last three statements. The word FALSE should be under- 
lined after statements 13, 14, and 15. If you have not done this 
you are at liberty to change your answers. 

As a matter of fact the word FALSE should be underlined 
only after statement 13. The score for Part II is in terms of the 
number of words doubly underlined after the statements and the 
effectiveness of the false suggestion made in the paragraph quoted 
above. If FALSE is not underlined after both statements 14 and 
15, the score is 16, otherwise it is 0. Scores may therefore range 
from o to 31. 

This is intended to be a measure of assurance or resistance to 
suggestion (16, p. 11). The higher the score the more assured the 
subject is. There is a slight tendency for the person who scores 
high in this test to be rated as unsociable and close-hearted. 

Results are given below and at the end of this chapter. The table 
below is presented graphically in Fig. 2. 

Q, Q, Q, 


Mechanical groups 22.5 30.8 31.5 
Industries seniors 16.0 27.8 31.0 
Life ins. salesmen (schools only) 12.2 15.6 28.5 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 11.0 15.3 22.0 


There is a very significant tendency for the mechanical groups 
to score higher in this test than the salesmen. All cases considered, 
the probability is one in infinity that a real difference between the 
two groups does not exist. 


Part 9, ratio. Ratio of Objective to Subjective Speed of De- 
cision. The score is the ratio of the number of traits checked in 
Part 3 to the number of traits checked in Part 9. This score 
has been treated as a measure of a self-consciousness by Ream 
(16, p. 11). The score in Part 9 alone would seem at first 
sight to be a measure of the trait, but this score must be in- 


22 MAX FREYD 


Industries Seniors ee 
Life Ins. Schools SE 
30 Life Ins. Salesmen SACRE 
’ t ‘ i] i ( 
Score 10 15 20 25 30 35 
Hie, 2 


Interquartile Ranges of Scores in Part 11, Test IX 


terpreted in the light of an objective decision. In this way we 
can determine the inhibiting effect of introducing the personal fac- 
tor into a decision. If the ratio is low, the personal factor has not 
changed the situation at all and the subject may be described as 
free from self-consciousness. If the ratio is high, the person has 
hesitated about personal judgments because, hypothetically, a com- 
plex regarding himself has caused him to become embarrassed. The 
same mechanism works to throw into relief complex-indicators in 
the free association experiment. Our correlations show that the 
person who gets a high score in the test (and is theoretically self- 
conscious) is rated as lacking in self-esteem and adaptability. 

Results are presented below and at the end of the chapter, and 
in Fig. 3. 


Be, Q, 42; 
Mechanical groups 98 1.21 1.48 
Industries seniors 96 1.19 1.36 
Misc. salesmen 80 1.05 1.38 
Life ins. salesmen 88 1.15 1.50 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 93 1.07 1.16 


There is a very significant difference between the primary 
groups, with the mechanics students obtaining the higher ratios 
(more self-conscious). This difference is reduced very much with 
the inclusion of the secondary groups. . 

Part 2. Inability to Write Slowly. In Part 2 there are three 
groups of words, each word being followed by a blank line. In the 
first and second groups are five words of fifteen letters each, while 
the third group has eight words of ten letters each. The subject is 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 23 


Mechanical Groups nan nn I 
Industries Seniors a ad 
Miscel. Salesmen aL 
Life Ins. Salesmen SR a 


50 .Life Ins. Sdlesmen emanemees:/eerors 


Scare 60 .90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50 
Hie. 3 
Interquartile Ranges of Scores in Part 9, ratio, Test IX 


required to write each word on the blank line, as slowly as he 
possibly can. Forty-five seconds are allowed for each of the first 
two parts, and sixty seconds for the third part. The directions for 
the three parts are similar, except that the exhortation to write 
' slowly becomes greater. The first two groups are ignored in scor- 
ing, as they exist merely for the purpose of impressing the sub- 
ject with the unusual type of performance that is demanded. The 
score is the number of letters written in the last section. Downey 
calls the equivalent test in her series a measure of ““power of motor 
control and inhibition” (4, p. 22). 

Results are presented below, at the end of the chapter, and in 
Fig. 4. 

Q, Q, Q, 


Mechanical groups 2.0 6.0 10.5 
Industries seniors 1.0 2.0 5.2 
Misc. salesmen 5.0 11.5 25.5 
Life ins. salesmen 3.5 7.3 ives 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 4.0 8.4 12.0 


A very significant tendency exists for the mechanical groups 
to write more slowly in this test. 


Part 8. Speed of Writing in Small Space. Part 8 consists of six 
short sentences (18 to 36 letters), each of which is followed by a 
line with vertical bars at its ends. In each case the line is shorter 
than the printed sentence. The directions are as follows: 

Copy each of the sentences below as rapidly as possible on the 


24 MAX FREYD 


Mechanical Groups a mae 
Industries Seniors ieee 
Miso. Salesmen Se ee ene nn 
Life Ins. Salesmen ‘ACR NE NS aN TE 
30 Life Ins. Salesmen wrorme}meaney 
. e t 
Soor e 64S aan "46 yy aot ae meee 
Fic. 4 


Interquartile Ranges of Scores in Part 2, Test IX 


line after each sentence. Be careful not to let the writing extend 
beyond the end of the line. 


Forty-five seconds are allowed. 
The score is the total number of letters written on the lines. Let- 


ters which extend beyond the bars at the ends of the lines are not 
counted. Downey says regarding the equivalent test in her series: 

“This test impresses a double mental set, namely, adjusting one’s 
movements to a limited space and doing it as rapidly as possible. 
. . . Just what such ability to coordinate impulses indicates is 
something of a question. My study of the individuals who make 
particularly good records or who fail overwhelmingly suggests 
that it serves as an index to what is called “keeping one’s head’; 
‘presence of mind’; perhaps orderly handling of a complex situa- 
tion without previous practice” (4, pp. 18-19). 

To the writer it seems that the test measures merely a skilled co- 
ordination such as is required in certain of the finer mechanical 
operations. This view is strengthened by the fact that the two 
highest correlations of this test with ratings are +.37 with accu- 
racy is work and +.40 with quickness in work. 

Results are given below, at the end of the chapter, and in Fig. 5. 


Q, Q, OF 


Mechanical groups 83 93 105 
Industries seniors 82.5 92.5 07 
Misc. salesmen 54 68 83 
Life ins. salesmen 63 75 90 


Succ. 1. i. salesmen 75° 85 95 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 25 


The mechanical groups do much better in this sort of task than 
the salesmen. The differences between the primary groups are 
small, but with the secondary groups considered, the differences 
are very significant. 


Mechanical Groups sean tienen 


Industries Seniors 


Misc. Salesman mL OC aes 
Life Ins. Salesmen SEES 
30 Life Ins. Salesmen Eo 
‘ 1 ' ' ! ' a 
Score 50 60 70 80 90 100 110° 
Fic. 5 


Interquartile Ranges of Scores in Part 8, Test IX 


Part 7. Carelessness in Copying.’ This part consists of three 
handwritten sentences (fourteen letters each), written by differ- 
ent persons. The instructions are to copy the sentences as exactly 
as possible. Space for this purpose is provided between the sen- 
tences. One minute and a half are allowed for this part. The score 
is in terms of the number of divergences from the originals in such 
details as dotting i’s, preserving the correct slant, closing the loops 
of a’s, etc. The subject is scored only on the first two sentences, 
and in each of these fifteen mistakes are possible, in other words, 
there are fifteen details in each of these two sentences which are 
observed for purposes of detecting mistakes. A stencil is used in 
scoring which is laid over the test and has arrows which point to 
these details, enabling the scorer to observe rapidly in each sen- 
tence how many of these fifteen standard details have been over- 
looked in copying the sentence. As in Part 6, disguises, the scoring 
method is weak in that it is quite subjective. One error in the ad- 
ministration of this test is the fact that speed is not taken into ac- 
8 Although it does not concern this study directly, it is worth while noting that 
when standings are plotted, as on the first page of the test booklet, high decile 


standings accompany high numerical scores, except in Part 9, ratio, Part 2, and 
Part 7, where the reverse is true. 


26 MAX FREYD 


count. It was presumed that everyone would finish the first two 
sentences in the time allotted, but this did not prove to be the case. 
In the results given below, the difference between the primary 
groups is reversed with the secondary groups. The difference be- 
tween the primary groups was due to the fact that the primary 
sales group wrote fewer words than the industries group. The 
median number of words written by the former group was 16, the 
latter group 25. If the test is rescored on the basis of the ratio of 
the number of errors made to the number of errors possible in the 
amount written (according to the scoring method), we find that 
the two primary groups differ in the same direction as the sec- 
ondary groups. These results will be given later. 

The results obtained with the present scoring method are given 
below, at the end of the chapter, and in Fig. 6. 


Q o Q, 
Mechanical groups 3.0 5.0 9.0 
Industries seniors 28 2.9 4.5 
Misc. salesmen 6.0 9.0 13.0 
Life ins. salesmen 4.6 9.0 14.0 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 1.3 2.8 4.7 


The differences between the mechanical groups and the salesmen 
are very significant, and indicate that the salesmen show less care 
for detail in such work than the mechanical groups. 

Part 6, letters. Number of Disguises Attempted. The score is 
the number of letters written in Part 6. The equivalent test in the 
original Downey series is called a test of tenacity or perseverance. 


Mechénical Groups rs 

Industries Seniors aero ed 

Misc. Salesmen SESS ERPS 
Life Ins. Salesmen ae eS 


50 Life Ins. Salesmen mmm 


4 6 
Fic. 6 
Interquartile Ranges of Scores in Part 7, Test IX 


to- 
@- 
K 
° 
~ 
wo 
ad 
> 


Score 0 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 27 


The test involves persistence in attempting an indefinite task. Re- 
sults are given below and at the end of the chapter. 
Oe rem anerar t | 7°F 


Mechanical groups 76 QI III.5 
Industries seniors 65 83 105 
Misc. salesmen 76 100 130 
Life ins. salesmen 68 90 120 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 78 102.5 128 


There are no important group differences in this test. There is 
a slight tendency for salesmen to make a greater number of at- 
tempts at disguising their handwriting. 

In addition to the scores regularly obtained from the test series, 
the following measures were obtained. 

Agreements Between Checks in Parts 3 and 9. This score was 
obtained at the suggestion of L. D. Anderson, as a possible meas- 
ure of conceit. The score is the number of agreements between 
the traits checked in the first column of Part 3 and the first column 
of Part 9. In Part 3 we have the opinion of the reagent on the 
most desirable traits to possess; in Part 9 he indicates which of 
these desirable traits he himself possesses. The number of agree- 
ments shows how desirable he considers his own traits. 

Results obtained with the primary groups are given below. 

Q, Q, Q, 


Industries seniors He 15.0 15.8 
Succ. 1, i. salesmen 12.5 13.8 16.0 


The mechanical group shows a slightly greater number of agree- 
ments than the sales group. 

Traits Checked in Part 3. Group comparisons were made in the 
frequencies with which the different traits in Part 3 were checked. 
No important differences were found, the great majority checking 
the traits in the socially acceptable way. This is added proof of the 
objectivity of the decision made in the test. 

Traits Checked in Part 9. Similarly, group comparisons were 
made in the frequencies with which each trait in Part 9 was checked. 
While not to be accepted as a self-rating, it is often the case that 
under stress of time and under test conditions a person will give 
a truer estimate of himself than he would if he had time to reflect 
and rationalize. No startling differences were discovered, the great- 
est ones being the following: 8 of the primary sales group checked 


28 MAX FREYD 


“slow,” whereas 17 of the primary mechanical group checked that 
trait; 18 salesmen and 12 industries students checked “quick’’; 9 
salesmen and I industries student checked “cowardly” ; 17 salesmen 
and 27 industries students checked “brave.” 

Part 4. Speeded Writing. Scores were in terms of the number of 
letters written in Part 4. This is a measure of the subject’s greatest 
speed of writing. It is more or less a measure of coordination of 
impulses. The following results were obtained with the primary 
groups. 


Qe Qa hens 
Industries seniors 149 169 187 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen I51I 163 175 
The industries students show a slight superiority in speeded writ- 


ing. 

Part 7. Revised Scoring. This part was rescored for reasons 
previously given. The revised scoring method is to obtain the ratio 
of the number of errors made to the number of possible errors by 
our scoring method, in the amount written. It leaves out of consid- 
eration the third sentence, but very few work on it. Results are 
as follows for the primary groups. 


Q, Q, Q, 
Industries seniors SG .24 rae 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 14 25 30 


This reverses the differences found when Part 7 is scored in the 
customary manner. The difference is slight, with the salesmen ex- 
hibiting a greater tendency toward making errors. 


DIRECTED ASSOCIATION TEST 


This test was printed on two sheets, the first containing the di- 
rections and the second containing the body of the test. The first 
page is reproduced herewith. 


DIRECTED ASSOCIATION TEST 
EXAMPLE: 
Column I 1st Solution ‘and Solution 

NAIL NAIL NAIL 
hammer rust 
handle 
wood 
tree 
roots 
damp 

WATER WATER WATER 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 29 


EXPLANATION: 

Note that in Column I there is no direct relationship between “NAIL” and 
“WATER.” You are to write words in the blank space in the column so that 
a continuous association is formed from “NAIL” to “WATER.” The example 
has been worked for you in two ways. Look at the first solution. Here “NAIL” 
suggests hammer,” “hammer” suggests “handle,” and so forth, “damp” finally 
suggesting “WATER.” Thus a continuous association is formed from “NAIL” 
to “WATER,” each word being suggested by the preceding one. The same 
thing is done in the second solution, but with only one word. 

On the following page you will find ten columns such as Column I. In each 
column you are to form a continuous association from the first to the last 
word. 

No stated number of words is required in each list, but make your lists as 
brief as possible. Work rapidly. 

Do not turn page until told to do so. 


The first and last words in the ten columns were as follows: 
sun-faith, day-blotter, potato-cement, sky-fever, inch-black, jour- 
ney-guilty, rifle-square, fun-question, sound-habit, copper-ignor- 
ant. 

-In giving this test the directions and examples on the first page 
were read aloud to the subjects and any questions answered. Then 
three minutes of continuous work were allowed on the test. The 
scores used in comparing the groups were: (1) the number of 
words per column, and (2) the number of columns completed. The 
character of the words written and the closeness of their associa- 
tion were ignored in scoring the test, as being impossible of simple 
and objective measurement. Group comparisons were not made by 
columns. 

This test was devised and used in the present study under the 
assumption that it measures ability in directed thinking. The per- 
son before whom the test is placed is required to direct his thought 
processes toward a definite end, and in order to receive a high score 
must keep his attention continually fixed on that end. It is easily 
imaginable that a person given to phantasy building, whose think- 
ing, in other words, is not directed toward serviceable ends, will 
lose his moorings at the first word and float away on a tide of 
words with no port in view. This type would be represented by 
those who on the average supply long lists of words and who also 
take plenty of time in completing the test. At the other extreme we 
should find the individual who is always present-minded and who 


30 MAX FREYD 


directs his thinking toward definite objective ends. Such a person 
will get a high score in the test, 7.¢., he will write few words and 
finish most of the lists. The two types are represented in the two - 
solutions on the first page of the test. 

The number of words per column correlates +.28 with ratings 
on present-mindedness. The number of columns completed shows 
the extraordinary correlations of -++-.54 with ratings on self-asser- 
tion and +.64 with ratings on bearing. 

The following results were obtained with the primary groups 
and the Case School seniors in Mechanical Engineering. 

Numbers of words per column: 


Q, Q, Q, 
Industries seniors 1.60 2.25 3.05 
Mech. Eng. seniors 2.02 2.43 2.75 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 1.85 ee) 2.95 

Number of columns completed : 

Q, Q, Q; 
Industries seniors 37 5.4 7.0 
Mech. Eng. seniors 6.0 74 8.0 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 5.0 6.7 8.8 


In each case the engineering students obtain the highest median 
score and the industries students the lowest. Since the salesmen 
occupy an intermediate position it is difficult to interpret the re- 
sults. If we ignore the engineering students, we note that the sales- 
men excel in speed of association, but that the industries students 
excel in directness and brevity of association. 


SERIES 12. KENT-ROSANOFF FREE ASSOCIATION TEST 


In its original form, as developed by Kent and Rosanoff (11) 
this test consisted of one hundred words which were presented 
orally to the subject one at a time. The subject responded in each 
instance with the first word which came to his mind, the response 
being recorded by the examiner. The test was in no sense a group 
test. The speed of response was at first recorded, but was later 
ignored owing to the magnitude of their undertaking. 

The originators of the test aimed to make a study of “certain 
disorders of the flow of utterance which appear to be dependent 
upon a derangement of the psychical processes commonly termed 
association of ideas” by “an application of the experimental meth- 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 31 


od known as the association test” (11, p. 5). In order to have on 
record the responses of normal people so that these could be com- 
pared with the responses of the insane, the association list which 
they arranged was given to one thousand normal subjects. From 
an analysis of this material the authors are led to observe that “the 
one tendency which appears to be almost universal among normal 
persons is the tendency to give in response to any stimulus word 
one or another of a small group of common reactions” (I1,p.14). 
The tendency among the insane is to give unique responses, but it 
is conceivable that an original person of great ability may give 
uncommon responses. 

The possibilities of this test in the study of vocational differ- 
ences has been scarcely recognized. Since Kent and Rosanoff stan- 
dardized the test in 1910, little use has been made of it on normal 
adults. Wells and others have given us classifications of the types 
of responses, and Murphy has used it to some extent for the com- 
parison of people who are inclined toward literature with those 
who are inclined toward science. Most of those who have used 
the test were drawn to it by an interest in abnormal psychology. 
Its application to normal adults as a measure of various volitional 
and associational tendencies, rather than as a means of detecting 
insanity or complexes, has been passed over. 

The Bureau of Personnel Research has adapted this test for its 
use by printing the list and administering it as a group test, with- 
out any very apparent change in the function measured. No 
changes were made in the lists of words. The words are printed 
consecutively with blank spaces opposite them in which the re- 
agents write their responses. The directions and examples are read 
to the reagents by the examiner and any questions regarding them 
are answered. A starting signal is given, at which the subjects com- 
mence to_record their responses to the words in sequence, and at 
the expiration of four minutes a stopping signal is given. This 
form is far easier to administer than the individual test, and rein- 
troduces the factor of speed. The error of timing is reduced, since 
it can enter only into the first and last responses given by the sub- 
ject. We have only a measure of average time per word, instead 
of a separate measure for each word. Speed of writing is a factor 


32 MAX FREYD 


which enters into the score on the number of responses given. The 

correlation of Speeded Writing (Part 4 of Test IX) with the 

number of responses in the Kent-Rosanoff Test is +-.37. 
Following are the directions for the test: 


Below is a list of 100 words. Write after each word the first word it sug- 
gests (the first word that comes to your mind). 
Do not write sentences. 
Do not stop to think. 
Work as quickly as you can. 
EXAMPLES: 


grass....green 
school.. .teacher 


For the purpose of this study, this test has been scored in thir- 
teen different ways, each of which is described below together with 
its results. ; 

Number of Responses. This score is simply the number of word 
responses given by the subject. General intelligence is probably the 
dominant factor in this performance. In this connection Wells 
says: . 

“Probably no one could seriously assert that increased emo- 
tional reaction is the sole cause of lengthened association time, 
though it need not be questioned that it is an important contrib- 
uting cause. The principal other factors are the failure to find a 
response that is intellectually satisfying, and a failure of predomi- . 
nance of any one among the associations presented” (23, p. 20). 


We might very well assert that these factors are inversely cor- 
related with intelligence. Speed of writing and general intelligence 
are the two tested functions which correlate most highly with the 
number of responses. The correlation coefficients are respectively 
+.37 and +.31. 

The interquartile ranges for the two primary groups are given 
below. The figures are practically identical for the two groups. 


Q, Q, Q, 
Industries seniors EO." 02 70 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 55 62 70 


Number of Spaces Omitted. The score was the number of spaces 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 33 


omitted up to the last word response given. Blocking of response is 
an extreme result of the factors operating to increase reaction 
time. Results for the primary groups are given below. 
Q, Q QQ, 
Industries seniors 4 9 Bi 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 3 8 1.4 

There is a very slight tendency for the industries students to 
omit more responses. 

Coefficient of Commonality. The commonality score on a re- 
sponse is obtained by referring to the Kent-Rosanoff tables of re- 
sponses given by one thousand normal adults (11, p. 77). In these 
tables each response word is preceded by a number which repre- 
sents the number of individuals (out of the thousand) who gave 
that response to the particular stimulus word. For example, after 
the stimulus word “dark” we find appearing first the word 
“afraid,” with the figure 6 before it, indicating that six of the 
one thousand subjects gave the word “afraid” in response to the 
word “dark.” In scoring any person’s test paper, we give him a 
score of 6 if he writes the word “afraid” after the stimulus word 
“dark.” The score used in this study is the sum of the commonality 
scores of the first twenty-five responses given by the subject. 

This score is a criterion of the extent to which a person’s 
thoughts run in normal objective channels (24, p. 74). Responses 
with low commonality value are unique responses which usually 
refer to the stibject’s individual experience. We cannot, however, 
go so far as to say that a person who scores low has psychopathic 
tendencies, since unusual responses may be characteristic of a 
very original person. The genius and the imbecile may find a com- 
mon ground in their commonality score. 

Results obtained with the primary groups are given below. 

Om Q, 0; 


Industries seniors 1600 2100 3400 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 2300 3500 4400 


The sales group shows a very significant superiority in this 
function. 

Responses with Commonality Value of Zero. This score is the 
number of responses entering into the preceding score whose com- 


34 MAX FREYD 


monality value is zero, t.e., the number of words which were not 
found in the Kent-Rosanoff tables. 


Results obtained are as follows: 
Q, Q, Q, 
Industries seniors 1.6 21 4.5 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen ny, 1.5 2.6 


As a corollary of the results of the preceding scoring method 
we find the industries students obtaining higher scores in the num- 
ber of zero value responses. 

Responses with Commonality Value of 1-5 Inclusive. These re- 
sponses are slightly less unique than the preceding ones. Scores are 
based on the first twenty-five responses given by the subjects. 


0. Q, OQ. 
Industries seniors 2.8 4.0 6.0 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 1.7 2.9 4.8 


Here again we find industries students obtaining higher scores. 

Five additional scores were obtained, using the classification 
given by Wells (22, 24). Effort toward the classification of types 
of responses arose among psychiatrists. Some of the better known 
classifications are those of Wells, Murphy, Krapelin,Aschaffen- 
burg, Munsterberg, Claparéde, etc. Most of the classifications are 
detailed and more logical than psychological, and they offer great 
obstacles to practical use. Wells’ classification seems to possess 
more points of merit than the others, and was therefore chosen for 
use in this study. His classification is given on the following page. 
This extract is copied verbatim from “Association Tests’ (24, 


P. 77). 

1, The egocentric reactions may be typified by— 

a. Predicate reactions. Cloud-ominous, flower-pretty, crooked-line, red-rose, 
scratch-cat, lion-roar, money-wish, invent-machine, weasel-stealth, beauty-rose, 
safe-quite, almost-grown, sing-well, never-decide, nicely-very (including the 
responses yes and no). 

b. Responses in the form of proper names. Citizen-New York, boy-Johnny, 
mountain-Kearsarge. 

c. Reactions interpreting the stimulus word as a proper name. Eagle-news- 
paper, park-square. 

d. Reaction involving the response of a pronoun. Hand-you, health-me. 

e. Interjections, failures of response or repetitions of the stimulus word. 

2. The supraordinate category is confined strictly to the individual-genus 
order, defined in such examples as, priest-man, potato-vegetable, lily-flower, 
cow-animal. 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED — 35 


3. The contrast group is composed, of course, of reactions in which the re- 
sponse means the opposite of the stimulus and is made up of such associations 
as, good-bad, trouble-pleasure, scatter-gather, fertile-sterile, and the like. 

4. The miscellaneous category is composed essentially of the remaining 
reactions of the “inner” type. It includes about 45 percent of all associations. 

5. The speech-habit group is composed of associations by familiar phrase 
(stand-pat) ‘word compounding (play-ground) simple sound associations 
(tease-sneeze) and syntactic changes (high-height). 


The purpose of a classification of this sort is to gain an insight 
into some of the mental processes. 

The only modification made in the use of this classification was 
to substitute the word “subjective” for “egocentric” in naming 
the first category, in order to avoid the connotations of the latter 
word. The responses falling into this group are not egocentric in 
the sense that they disclose a self-centered personality, but in the 
sense that they are not objective or universal. 

The scores for each of the five categories consist of the number 
of responses belonging to that category out of the first twenty- 
five words in the list; not necessarily the first twenty-five responses 
made by the subject, since omissions of response are classified as 
subjective responses. 

Some difficulty was encountered in using this classification since 
a great many words could fit with equal justification into several 
of the classes. 

Subjective Responses. The following results were obtained with 


the primary groups. 
Oo; (Oia Oy, 
Industries seniors 5.5 11.0 16.3 
Succ. |. i. salesmen 3.0 8.0 12.0 

In view of the fact that subjective responses have low common- 
ality value, we should expect these results. 

Supraordinate Responses. Very few responses of this type oc- 
curred. Twenty-one of the industries students and twenty-six of 
the salesmen made no responses of this type. 

Contrast Responses. Since this has proved to be the most im- 
portant single score yielded by the test, it deserves special attention. 
It correlates -++.92 and -++.98 with the coefficient of commonality, 
and since it is a much easier score to obtain than the commonality 
score (a matter of several seconds compared with over a minute) 


36 MAX FREYD 


it may be very easily substituted for that score. It also correlates 
—.9o and —.86 with the number of subjective items, another im- 
portant score which is difficult to obtain. It yields fairly high cor- 
relations with most of the other scores obtained from this test, 
and consequently is the most significant and representative score 


yielded by the test. 
All of the groups were scored on the number of contrast re- 


sponses. Results are given below and in Fig. 7. 
Industries Seniors STAB ee 


West. N.S. Seniors ——— 


Harr. RE. Salesmen Sra RS LD 


Cleve. Disc. Salesmen 


Life Ins. Schools AIT I 


30 Life Ins. Salesmen Sr NST RES 
Score ee EY ee SN) ice 
Fic. 7 


Interquartile Ranges of Number of Contrast Responses, 
Series 12, Kent-Rosanoff Test 


Q, Q. Q, 
Mechanical groups 1.6 4.7 9.8 
Industries seniors 1.0 2.7 7.0 
West. N.S. seniors 1.4 28 4.0 
Cl. Disc. Co. and Harr R.E. Co. salesmen 6 2.5 7.5 
Life ins. salesmen (schools only) 1.3 7.6 II.0 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 39 7.3 83:3 


The large difference between the primary groups is cut down 
considerably by the secondary groups, yet we find the life insur- 
ance salesmen showing a slight superiority as a whole over the 
mechanics students. (See table at end of chapter. ) 

Miscellaneous Responses. The following results were obtained 


on the primary groups. 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 37 


Q, Q, Q; 
Industries seniors 7.0 10.0 12.6 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 8.0 9.9 10.9 


No group differences appear. 
Speech-Habit Responses. Results obtained with the two primary 
groups are given below. 


Q, Q. Q, 
Industries seniors 4 8 1.6 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 6 1.4 2.0 


There is a significant tendency for salesmen to make more re- 
sponses of this nature than industries students. 
Responses were also classified into three grammatical cate- 
gories. 
Noun Responses. Results on the primary groups follow. 
Q, Q, Q, 
Industries seniors 12 15 19 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 12.5 14 18.5 


No group differences appear. 
* Adjective and Adverb Responses : . 
; Q, Q, a 


Industries seniors 5.0 6.8 9.8 
Succ. 1. i, salesmen 6.0 9.1 10.5 


The salesmen show a significant tendency to give more re- 
sponses of this class than the industries students. The difference 
is not as great as in the number of contrast responses. 

Verb and Participle Responses: 

Q, Q, Q, 


Industries seniors 23 Bia 4.3 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 1.0 28 3.9 


There is some tendency for industries students to make more 
responses of this sort than the salesmen. 


SUMMARY 


The results which may be classified as highly significant from 
the statistical standpoint are the following: 


Mechanically inclined people excel in 
Speed of checking better traits (Part 3, Test IX) 
Speed of checking personal traits (Part 9, Test IX) 
Assurance in visual memory (Part 11, Test IX) 
Speed of writing in small space (Part 8, Test IX) 
Number of subjective responses in the Kent-Rosanoff test. 


38 MAX FREYD 


Salesmen excel in 
Ability to disguise handwriting (Part 6, disguises, Test IX) 
Inability to write slowly (Part 2, Test IX) 
Carelessness in copying (Part 7, Test 1X) 
The coefficient of commonality in the Kent-Rosanoff test. 
The following are less significant results: 


Mechanically inclined people excel in 
Enlargement of writing under distraction (Part 5, Test IX). 
Ratio of objective to subjective speed of decision (Part 9, 

ratio, Test IX) . 

Agreements between checks in Parts 3 and 9. 
Speeded writing (Part 4, Test IX) 

Salesmen excel in 
Number of disguises attempted (Part 6, letters, Test IX) 
Speech-habit responses in the Kent-Rosanoff test. 
Contrast responses in the Kent-Rosanoff test. 


SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE 


The following table gives a more accurate estimate of the 
tested differences than is afforded by comparisons of interquartile 
ranges. The figures show how significant are the differences in 
means between the Mechanical Group and the Miscellaneous Sales- 
men and the Life Insurance Salesmen combined, in those tests in 
which results on these large groups are available. In Part 3 of Test 
IX, for instance, the group referred to as the Mechanical Group 
is compared with the Miscellaneous Salesmen and the Life Insur- 
ance Salesmen combined. Differences between the primary groups 
have not been treated in this manner since the procedure has no 
value with small groups. The statistical treatment follows that of 
Fernald, Hayes, and Dawley (5, p. 109 et seq.) 


TABLE I 
AVERAGES CHANCES THAT REAL 
TEST SALES MECH. DIFFERENCE DIFFERENCE DOES 
‘GROUPS GROUP NOT EXIST ARE I IN 
Test IX 
Batt 24.34 28.44 4.10 6.30 Infinity 
Part oy > 21.63 25.66 4.03 4.74 555,550.0 
Part 6, disg. 3.00 2.60 .40 2:33 2,301.0 
Part 5 197.98 201.64 3.66 1.16 8.1 
Part I1 17.10 25.50 8.40 8.40 Infinity 
Part 9, ratio 122.00 125.76 3.76 885 5.3 
Part 2 14.18 9.00 5.18 3.08 31,546.0 
Part 8 73.02 04.7 Die 9.22 Infinity 
atten 9.68 6.75 2.03 6.42 Infinity 
Part 6, letters 103.58 101.76 1.82 .408 3.2 


Kent-Ros. Test 
Cont. Resp. 5.34 5.08 .26 52 Ge) 


CHAPTER III 


GROUP COMPARISONS BASED ON ANSWERS 
TO QUESTIONNAIRES 


THE METHOD 


Questionnaires have been used for gathering data in diverse 
experiments by many psychologists, including Galton, Hall, Leuba, 
and others. The questionnaire method is objective and has the ad- 
vantages that no timing is necessary and groups do not have to be 
assembled for purposes of administering the papers. For the same 
reasons, however, a certain caution must be observed. If the pur- 
pose of the questionnaire is obvious there is nothing to prevent 
the subject from filling it out in the way which he thinks will best 
serve his interests. In order to make the answers more valuable, 
the purpose of the questionnaire must not be too apparent. If under 
these circumstances the subject guesses at the purpose and fills out 
the questionnaire falsely, he runs no greater chance of hitting upon 
the “right” answers than he would in a test. 

In this study a series of five detailed questionnaires was submit- 
ted to the two primary groups and to the Case School seniors. 
Group comparisons were made in answers given. By this means it 
was intended to study differences in personality as expressed in in- 
terests and attitudes, and to determine the importance of personal 
history as a cause for any differences in personality disclosed. 

No statistical evaluation of the differences was made, owing to 
the immense amount of computation involved. In the presenta- 
tion of the results, the original figures are given in most instances. 


DESCRIPTION OF QUESTIONNAIRES 


The subject matter of the five questionnaires is roughly the fol- 
lowing: Questionnaire 1, early personal history; Questionnaire 2, 
vocational interests; Questionnaire 3, avocational interests; Ques- 
tionnaire 4, likes and dislikes; Questionnaire 5, beliefs. The 


40 MAX. FREYD 


groundwork of the lists was a series of questions submitted to 
C. S. Yoakum by students enrolled in a seminar in personnel re- 
search in 1919, at Carnegie Institute of Technology. These ques- ~ 
tions were intended to reveal a cross-section of an individual’s 
personal history and interests at several important stages of his 
development. It is due to the incentive furnished by Yoakum that 
the series of questions was compiled and that modified forms were 
used in this study. In addition to this source, items were drawn 
from the published material of the following men: Allport, Baade, 
Lipman, and Stern, Cimbal, Healy, Hoch and Amsden, Meyer, 
Moore, Pressey, Sommer, Stern, Wells, and Woodworth. A num- 
ber of forms in use at various institutions were also consulted. 
Items for the questionnaire on beliefs were contributed by M. A. 
Bills and L. D. Anderson, of the staff of the Bureau of Personnel 
Research. Some use was made of the lists given by Kemble, 
Nathan and Mencken, and Sumner. 

Questionnaire 1. Early Personal History. The personality of an 
individual is the resultant partly of heredity and partly of en- 
vironment. The latter commences its modifying influence directly 
after birth, and during childhood so molds the individual that the 
impressions of this period have more influence in shaping his per- 
sonality than those of any later period. By finding out what these 
impressions were, we can better understand the personality of the 
adult. In our case we can determine to what extent the individuals 
in the same vocational group were subjected to the same influence ~ 
in childhood. 

The most thorough attempts to determine the effect of environ- 
ment in shaping the adult personality have come from psychi- 
atrists. Before attempting to cure his patient the psychiatrist 
makes it a point to have before him all the material he can assemble 
on the past history of the patient. He can then trace the causes of 
the malady and apply such curative methods as-the case demands. 

That personal history is an important factor in vocational choice 
and success has been proved by Andrews (1), Goldsmith (8), and 
Ream (17). These workers have found that certain facts yielded 
by questions ordinarily included in application blanks have such 
great vocational differentiating value that workers may with fair 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 41 


success be chosen merely on the basis of their answers to these 
questions. Their results have been carried over into this study on 
a larger scale. 

Questionnaire I consists of seventy questions covering paren- 
tage, and early home and social environment, etc., up to the ap- 
proximate age of twelve. 

Questionnaire 2, Vocational Interests. Questionnaire 3, Avo- 
cational Interests. Questionnaire 4, Likes and Dislikes. 

Questionnaire 2 covers items of vocational interest. The third 
page is a modification and enlargement of a form used by Moore 
(13) for determining occupational interests. The 72 occupations 
are listed in alphabetical order, but they are readily classified into 
general groups, such as scientific occupations, literary occupations, 
selling, indoor work, outdoor work, executive work, etc. 

Questionnaire 3 covers such items as hobbies, literary interests, 
diversions, athletic interests, social tendencies, religious tenden- 
cies, etc. 

Questionnaire 4 contains 129 items toward which the subject 
expresses his attitude, and which fall into three general groups: 
first, a series of physical attributes of people, up to item 26; sec- 
ond, a series of mental attributes of people, items 27 to 76; and 
third, a series of miscellaneous items, 77 to the end. In addition to 
the detailed tabulation of the answers given by groups of indi- 
viduals, this questionnaire offers information on personality in the 
total number of each kind of symbol checked in response to the 
first 76 items. Correlations with ratings (Chapter V) show that 
the person who tends to check a great many “?” after the first 76 
items tends also to be rated as flexible and adaptable (r == +.48). 
The person who checks a great many L’s and L!’s after these 
items tends to be rated as submissive (r == +.43), self-conscious 
(r = +.43), and unadaptable (r == +.31). Group comparisons 
on the basis of the number of such symbols checked reveal no dif- 
ferences. | 

An individual may go into an occupation not only because of 
certain factors in his personal history or because of an interest in 
that occupation, but also for the reason that he has a number of 
concomitant interests which are gratified by the type of work he 


42 MAX FREYD 


has elected to enter upon. In addition to sales ability or abilities, 
which may be difficult to fathom, successful salesmanship is due 
to communities of interests all of which find an outlet in sales 
tasks; such interests, for example, as in talking to and meeting 
people, in variety in daily work, in walking around rather than 
sitting at a bench all day, and so on. It has been shown that records 
of such interests are valuable supplements to tests for the selection 
of salesmen. 

It does not matter much for present purposes how we define 
interests. In behavioristic terms, interest in an object may be de- 
fined as a tendency to make positive reactions toward that object. 
Introspection would add the affective element, or “likes.’’ We are 
not concerned here with interests that are mere reflexes, such as 
the interest in a bright light in the periphery of vision. Rather we 
are concerned with those which are developed in a social environ- 
ment and are based on either heredity or social habit. 

Very little scientific study of interests has been made up to the 
present. The outstanding researches are those which Thorndike 
(19) has carried out on interests in school studies. The methods 
used were such as to make the results of limited significance. They 
point to the conclusion that courses tend to maintain their relative 
degree of interest throughout school or collegiate life; that a high 
correlation exists between a person’s interest in a school subject 
and his ability in that subject as judged by himself; and that a 
significant, but somewhat lower, correlation exists between inter- 
est in a subject and ability in it as measured by school grades. The 
conclusions give weight to any arguments for the use of interests 
as auxiliaries to measures of abilities. 

The analysis of interests has played a prominent part in two 
major studies produced by members of the staff of the Bureau of 
Personnel Research. Moore (13) used an interest questionnaire in 
differentiating among a group of graduate engineers those who 
inclined toward design engineering and those who inclined toward 
sales engineering. The section of his interest questionnaire which 
proved to be the most reliable for the differentiation of the two 
groups was a record of occupational preferences. A scoring 
method for this blank was determined empirically; that is, if a 


THE SOCIALLY AND, THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 43 


larger proportion of the sales engineers than the design engineers 
liked a certain occupation, this reaction to the occupation was 
assigned a score favorable to sales engineering. The total score 
for any person indicated whether his inclinations were in the di- 
rection of design engineering or sales engineering. No attempt 
was made to determine the relative significance of the items en- 
tering into the total score, all such items being weighted one. By 
means of the total score on choice of occupations, 82 per cent of 
the men were placed properly, in other words, with the most favor- 
able critical score, there was an overlapping of only 18 per cent. 

Ream (17) used interest blanks very much like Questionnaires 
2 and 4 of the present series, in his study of methods of selecting 
successful life insurance salesmen. In his study a refinement of 
statistical procedure was introduced, namely, where the propor- 
tions of successful and unsuccessful salesmen who liked or dis- 
liked an item differed considerably, the ratio of the difference in 
proportion to its standard error was calculated. All items in which 
this ratio was one or more entered into the total score on the in- 
terest blanks. All items were weighted one. Distributions of total 
scores on the interest blanks showed that by their means approxi- 
mately 80 per cent of the men were placed correctly. 

Any attitude which has a strong emotional accompaniment may 
be called a “complex.’’ Thus Hart (Psychology of Insanity) 
speaks of the photography complex. Pressey has tried to measure 
the complexes of an individual by the questionnaire method (15). 
His contribution presents two aspects of interest: (1) the blank 
is made extremely concise and compact by printing lists of words 
with directions for expressing one’s attitude toward them at the 
top of the page, each word thus representing what would ordinari- 
ly be a complete question; (2) a method is given for obtaining 
a total score. Pressey selected for his total score ten items crossed 
out in greater proportion by successes in school and ten others 
crossed out in greater proportion by failures. By subtracting each 
of the latter from the former (checked by any student) he ob- 
tained a total score which differentiated successes from failures. 
The overlapping of the distributions for the two groups, using the 
most favorable critical score, was only Io per cent (11/106). 


44 MAX FREYD 


Questionnaire 4 serves a somewhat similar purpose. Complexes 
are here disclosed by checking L! or D! These checks are due to | 
emotionally toned incidents in the previous experience of the re-» 
agent by which the object of the complex acquired a gil or 
unfavorable halo. 

Questionnaire 5. Beliefs. The final questionnaire consists of a 
number of questions on which people tend to disagree. The 
answers are therefore measures of attitudes, perhaps emotionally 
toned, and in a limited sense serve to gauge the subject’s informa- 
tion. 

That attitudes expressed in answers to such questions are of 
vocational importance, is shown by one study at least, that of 
Leuba (12, p. 255) on the belief in God and immortality. He com- 
pared leaders and lesser men in the physical and biological sciences 
in the proportion of their numbers believing in God and immor- 
tality. The proportions are as follows: 


PER CENT BELIEVING IN 
GOD IM MORT. 


Physical sciences Leaders 34.8 40.0 
Lesser men 49.7 ra 
Biol. sciences Leaders 16.9 25.4 
Lesser men 39.1 45.1 


These figures have no direct bearing on the present study except 
as they show the possibility of obtaining important. group differ- 
ences in reactions to moot questions. 

The headings of the various questionnaires and specimen ques- 
tions are given on the following pages. 


QUESTIONNAIRE 1 
Earty PersonaL History 


This information is wanted for statistical purposes only. It will be kept 
strictly confidential. Your answers will be seen by no one except the person 
who does the tabulating. 

Consult no one in filling out this questionnaire, except to get necessary in- 
formation to which you do not have access. 

If a question is followed by the letters Y N, draw a circle around the Y 
if your answer is Yes, and draw a circle around the N if your answer is No. 

Leave no questions unanswered. 


1. What is your height?........ feet Sais. inches. Weight........ pounds. 
4. In what state or, country: weresyou) borti? ..c.251.. as seca ued cee 


22. 


ae 


24. 


SO HRN AM 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 45 


In what. State or country wasryour father: Dom? .civdiesdoscscsecassare 
What was your father’s'nationality, (ancestry,) 2? cc. csccccc ccs c cress occ 
In what state or country was your mother born? .......ccecseccsscccees 
What was your mother’s nationality (ancestry)? .........seeeeeeecerees 
Were your parents divorced after your birth? Y N. 

How old were you at the time of your father’s death, if he is not living? 


Which of your parents did you like the better? Father ( ), Mother (_ ). 
Which of your parents exercised the most influence on your life? 
Father ( ), Mother ( ). 

Do you feel that if you had your childhood to live over again, that you 
would desire a change in your home and other environmental conditions? 
2 N. 

Would you choose more sociable parents? ( ), less sociable ones ( ), 
or the same (_ )? 

What was the general tenor of your family life? Formal ( ), Informal 
( ), Refined ( ), Unrefined ( ), Happy ( ), Gloomy (_ ), Quarrel- 
some ( ), Peaceable (_ ). 

Who was the dominant one in the family? ccc. ccc enemies ap Sawectslecs 
As a child how were you treated in general in comparison with your broth- 
ers and sisters? Better ( ), Worse ( ), Average ( ). 


(There are 70 questions altogether.) 


QUESTIONNAIRE 2 


VocATIONAL INTERESTS 


(Directions are similar to those for Questionnaire 1.) 

Did you ever plan to take a civil service examination? Y N. Did you 
ever take a civil service examination? Y N. Did you pass? Y. WN. 
Is your present vocational choice due to the advice of a friend (_ ), rela- 
tive ( ), vocational adviser ( ), teacher ( ), school friend (_ ), ac- 
quaintance ( ), someone in the same vocation (_ ), to reading ( ), or 
to a consideration of your own abilities ( )? You may check more than 
one. 

In what occupation and position do you see yourself ten years from now? 


SiG) ©6010) ¥18).0)01 6 6 6% 2. ave 0.0» 60's) 6 6 © O10) 6, 6 60 0 0 6 6 © 9 © 00.000 0,0 00 8 68 2 6 9 810 8 0.019 & 


What income do you expect to command at 50? $............ 
Did you ever quit a job because 

The work was too hard for you physically?...... aN 
ApMerewdaSetoO MCh T101SC ley suis. «oi «ain elise silence SY aoN| 
PEM OEM AS- 100 CILty ! twion> « 0.0.0 s ames maeee bass! 
The work was too monotonous? .............6. VoaNG 
You were not promoted often enough? .......... Y N 
You disagreed with the boss? ............seeeee: Yon, 
You felt that the job offered no future?.......... avn LN) 


(There are 13 questions altogether.) 


46 MAX. FREYD © 


CHOICE OF OCCUPATIONS 


(Third page of Questionnaire 2.) 


After each of the occupations listed there are three symbols. Cross out one 
of the symbols after each occupation, as follows: 

‘Cross out L if you would like doing that kind of work. 

Cross out D if you would dislike doing that kind of work. 

Cross out ? if you have decided feelings toward that kind of work, or know 
nothing about it. 

Disregard any salary or social differences or any possible family objections. 
Consider only your interest and satisfaction in doing each of the kinds of work 
listed. You are not asked whether you would take up the occupation per- 
manently; you are merely asked if you would enjoy that kind of work. Assume 
that you have the ability necessary for each of the occupations. 

Be sure to cross out one symbol after each of the occupations. Do not skip 
any. 


Actor Leigh) Mechanical engineer L ? D 
Architect bia a 8 Member of Congress L ? D 
Artist OWT a) Musician bee AB, 
Astronomer ee, Newspaper reporter L ? D 
Auctioneer pee ANB) Novelist Li dae el 


(There are 72 occupations in the list.) 


QUESTIONNAIRE 3 


AVOCATIONAL INTERESTS 


(Directions are similar to those for Questionnaire 1.) 

3. Have you ever constructed a piece of furniture or household appliance 
other than in a school shop? Y N. 

4. Do you think that you could find out what was wrong with a watch that 
did not run? Y N. An electric motor? Y N. An autor Y N. A 
gasoline motor? Y N. 

Did you ever build a coop or a house for an animal? Y N. 


Nw 
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7. Have you ever made a collection of stamps? Y N. Coins? Y N. 
Postal cards?” Y- = Ni \Whatelsetosicaaee cos cs > lee «na Gerard ae nee 

8. Did you ever own a camera? Y N. Which type of picture do you pre- 
fer to take, scenes (_ ) or snapshots of people (_ )? Check only one. 

44. Estimate how many smokers, lodge meetings, card parties or other social 
affairs of your own sex you have attended during the past year.......... 
Estimate how many mixed social affairs you have attended during the 
Past Veataadces te cee Include dances, parties, socials, etc. Do not include 
ordinary “dates.” 

45.’ How many plays have you acted in?..:4.6-..0..acs cea cue een 

46. Can you successfully tell a story to a group of people? Y N. 

47. Name the social clubs, fraternities, and business organizations to which 
Vou Delong. son's one's s apps o's ooo ce WN ao vie seme Ore ce ene eae 
Draw a line under each one which you attend regularly. : 

(There are 76 questions in this list.) 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 47 


QUESTIONNAIRE 4 


LIKES AND DISLIKES 


Cross out one of the symbols after each of the items below, as follows: 

Cross out L! if you like the item very much. 

Cross out L_ if you like the item. 

Cross out ? if you have no decided feelings toward the item. 

Cross out D_ if you dislike the item. 

Cross out D! if you dislike the item very much. 

You may be in doubt in some cases. Use your own judgment, always check- 
ing the symbols in the way which expresses your most frequent attitude. 

Be sure to cross out one symbol after each of the items. Do not skip any. 


Blondes Os Sere ek Be 
Brunettes Dial DAD 
Very old people Felsh eet aly 4 
Children Bi aes De 
Cripples Lp Lake Ee 
People who disagree with you LAalee Ly) | 
People more intelligent than you L! L ? D D! 
People less intelligent than you L! L ? D D! 
People who borrow things Lie LoaterDa Dt 
Quick-tempered people j TN ea ar aie AD 
‘Conventions Pigiiveiae DID} 
Sporting pages Bevis wri at 
Love stories Dieser Dip 
Detective stories ee Lee Loe LA 
“Life” SE hh OO 8 


(There are 129 such items.) 


QUESTIONNAIRE 5 


BELIEFS 


Draw a circle around Y if your answer is Yes. 
Draw a circle around N_ if your answer is No. 


This information is wanted for statistical purposes only. 
Your answers will be kept strictly confidential. 
Do you believe 
1. That Japan and the United States will be at war with each other within 
the next forty years? Y N. 
That divorce laws should be made stricter? Y N. 
That prize fights should be prohibited? Y N. 
That capital punishment should be abolished? Y N. 
That unstinted service is always rewarded? Y N. 
(There are 82 questions in this list.) 


Qk N 


48 MAX FREYD 


RESULTS 


The numbers at the heads of the paragraphs below refer to the 
questions in the original lists. Only significant positive results are 
presented here.* The groups compared are the two primary groups 
and the Case School seniors. 


Questionnaire 1. Early Personal History 

5. Eighty per cent of the fathers of the salesmen were born in 
this country; 60 per cent of the fathers of the industries students ; 
and 53 per cent of the fathers of the engineering students. 

6. The per cents of fathers of American or British nationality 
among the three groups to whom the questionnaire was given are: 
primary sales group, 73 per cent; primary mechanical group, 56 
per cent; and Case School seniors, 46 per cent. American nationali- 
ty: 23, 13, and II per cent, respectively. 

7. The per cents of mothers born in this country are: salesmen, 
83 per cent; industries seniors, 43 per cent; and engineering stu- 
dents, 72 per cent. 

8. The per cents of mothers of American or British nationality 
are as follows: salesmen, 67 per cent; industries students, 43 per 
cent; and engineering students, 39 per cent. American nationality, : 
26, 6, and 7 per cent, respectively. 


12. Education of fathers: 
PER CENTS FINISHING 
GRADES HIGH SCHOOL COLLEGE 


Succ. 1. i. salesmen 82 46 19 
Industries seniors 73 31 4 
Mech. Eng. seniors 77 42 16 


13. Education of mothers: 
PER CENTS FINISHING 
GRADES HIGH SCHOOL COLLEGE 


‘Succ. 1. i. salesmen 96 54 14 
Industries seniors 78 44. ) 
Mech. Eng. seniors 86 43 Zz 


1It is impossible to present the complete questionnaires and results here. 
Those interested in examining the questionnaires may obtain copies from the 
Bureau of Personnel Research at Carnegie Institute of Technology. Those 
questions not reported on in this section revealed no group differences or 
merely insignificant ones, or showed differences but were omitted because the 
data were irrelevant to the present study. 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED — 49 


15. Parent “taken after”: 
PER CENT TAKING AFTER 
FATHER MOTHER BOTH NEITHER 


Succ. 1. i. salesmen 57 30 10 3 
Industries seniors 47 50 (a) 3 
Mech, Eng. seniors 51 42 a, ) 


16. Side of ancestry resembled: 
PER CENT RESEMBLING 
FATHERS MOTHERS 


Succ. |. i. salesmen 57 43 
Industries seniors 47 53 
Mech. Eng. seniors 49 46 


17. There is a slightly greater tendency among the salesmen to 
be the oldest or youngest of a large family of boys. They belong 
to larger families than the members of the other two groups. In 
this respect the engineering students occupy an intermediate po- 
sition. The number of only children is proportionately the same 
for the three groups. 

-19. The occupations of fathers were classified in six rough 
groups. The number of times each type is mentioned as a father’s 


occupation is shown below. 
SALESMEN IND. MECH.ENG, 


Farming 6 2 4 
Commerce 12 4 20 
Industry 5 12 10 
Professional 10 I 9 
Sales” «. 2 ) 5 
Clerical (o) 6 I 


20. Parent liked better: 
PER CENT PREFERRING 
FATHER MOTHER BOTH 


Succ. 1. i. salesmen 7 40 53 
Industries seniors O 63 37 
Mech. Eng. seniors 15 60 30 


21. Parent exercising the most influence on their lives: 
PER CENT NAMING 
: FATHER MOTHER EQUAL 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 27 57 17 


Industries seniors te) 93 7 
Mech. Eng. seniors 34 59 7 


22. Percentages of men who would want a change in their home 


50 MAX FREYD 


and other environmental conditions if they had their lives to live 


over again: 
PER CENT 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 23 
Industries seniors 33 
Mech. Eng. seniors 29 


24. Practically all of the men characterize their family life as 
“informal, refined, happy, and peaceable.’’ Five engineernig stu- 
dents, one industries student, and no salesmen check “unrefined.”’ 
Five engineering students, three industries students, and no sales- 
men check ‘“‘quarrelsome.”’ 7 

25. Dominant member of family: 


PER CENT NAMING 
FATHER MOTHER NEITHER 


Succ. 1. i. salesmen 57 17 26 
Industries seniors 50 30 20 
Mech. Eng. seniors 62 BT 3 


26. Treatment as a child compared with brothers and sisters: 
PER CENT TREATED 
BETTER WORSE AVERAGE 


Succ. 1. i. salesmen T3it hin 0 87 
Industries seniors 7 7 86 
Mech. Eng. seniors 13 fa) 87 


27. Financial circumstances of family: 


PER CENT INDICATING 
POOR MODERATE WELL-TO-DO 


Succ. 1. i. salesmen 10 60 30 
Industries seniors 17 80 3 
Mech. Eng. seniors 9 12 79 
28. Social inclinations of family: 
PER CENT 
MORE OFTEN INVITER MORE OFTEN INVITED 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 43 57 
Industries seniors 65 35 
Mech. Eng. seniors 64 36 


30. Percentages whose family acquaintanceship was limited to 
people of the same religious belief : 


PER CENT 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 23 
Industries seniors 30 


Mech. Eng. seniors 30 


THE SOCIALLY AND. THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 51 


31. Father’s religious belief : 


PER CENT 
CATHOLIC PROTESTANT 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 3 83 
Industries seniors 26 53 | 
Mech. Eng. seniors 7 81° 
32. Mother’s religious belief : 
PER CENT 
CATHOLIC PROTESTANT 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 3 90 
Industries seniors 23 60 
Mech. Eng. seniors 7 83 
41. Per cents who had a desire to run away from home: 
PER CENT 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 23 
Industries seniors 10 
Mech. Eng. seniors 19 
Per cents running away from home: 
PER CENT 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 7 
Industries seniors 3 
Mech. Eng. seniors 2 


43. A tendency is shown for salesmen to be brought up in a bet- 


ter residential district than the industries students. The latter are 
more often residents of small towns. 


44. Per cents desiring a wealthier environment if they had their 
lives to relive: . 


PER CENT 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 17 
Industries seniors 30 
Mech. Eng. seniors 28 

45. Per cents desiring more refined playmates: 

PER CENT 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 27 
Industries seniors 33 
Mech. Eng. seniors 26 

46. Per cents desiring more cheerful conditions: 

PER CENT 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 17 
Industries seniors oF 


Mech. Eng. seniors 35 


52 MAX FREYD 


53. Fisthights engaged in before the age of twelve: 
PER CENT WINNING 
MEDIAN NO. MORE THAN HALF HALF LESS THAN HALF 


Succ. 1. i. salesmen 3.7 23 60 17 
Industries seniors 13.0 64 18 18 
‘Mech. Eng. seniors 5.0 4I 37 22 


66. Per cent of income earned while attending high school: 
MEDIAN PER CENT 


Succ. |. i. salesmen yi 
Industries seniors II 
Mech. Eng. seniors 9 


69. Per cent of expenses earned at college: 
MEDIAN PER CENT 


Suce. 1. i. salesmen 9 
Industries seniors 21 
Mech. Eng. seniors 14 


Questionnaire 2. Vocational Interests. 


6. Reasons for present vocational choice: 
FREQUENCY AMONG 
SALESMEN IND. MECH. ENG. 


Advice of a friend II 3 7 
Advice of a relative 10 3 14 
Advice of a school friend . O 6 
Advice of someone in same vocation 12 3 7 
Consideration of own abilities 22 20 35 


8. Income expected at the age of 50: 


MEDIAN . 
Succ. |. i. salesmen $19,300 
Industries seniors 16,500 
Mech. Eng. seniors 10,500 


g. Reasons for ever quitting jobs: 
FREQUENCY AMONG 
SALESMEN IND. MECH. ENG. 


Not promoted often enough 6 3 2 
_ Disagreed with the boss 5 9 6 
11. Per cents bothered if they were watched at work: 
: PER CENT 
Suce. 1. i. salesmen 5 
Industries seniors 31 
Mech. Eng. seniors 30 


The occupational choices which showed the greatest group dif- 
ferences are given in Table II. No statistical procedure was used 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 53 


in selecting these items beyond omitting all which did not show 
differences of ten per cent or more. If the item was skipped or if 
both L and D were checked, credit was given for checking the 
question mark, 


TABLE II 


Group Comparisons in Choice of Occupations. Percentages of each group 
checking L (Like) after the occupations. The groups are the two primary 
groups and the Case School seniors in mechanical engineering. 

PER CENTS OF EACH GROUP CHECKING 
L AFTER THE OCCUPATION 


SA. IND. M.E. 
Actor 46 20 23 
Architect 43 50 55 
Astronomer 13 36 23 
Automobile salesmen 63 53 37 
Auto racer 26 40 34 
Auto repairman 10 46 49 
Aviator 56 60 58 
Bank teller 20 33 vidi 
Baseball player 46 66 28 
Carpenter 20 40 a7 
Cook 3 13 9 
Dentist 10 16 13 
Draftsman 10 43 39 
Editor 43 30 32 
Explorer 36 60 72 
Factory manager 40 90 90 
Farmer 23 26 15 
Foreign correspondent 50 30 18 
Hotelkeeper or manager 26 36 15 
Labor arbitrator 20 33 18 
Lawyer 60 36 18 
Locomotive engineer 20 43 34 
Machinist 10 50 46 
Magazine writer 53 2 28 
Mechanical engineer 30 43 90 
Musician 50 70 690 
Newspaper reporter 40 20 22 
Novelist 33 13 20 
Office clerk - g 10 2 
Office manager 50 66 51 
Philanthropist 56 43 30 
Politician 33 23 9 
Preacher 2 3 9 
Promoter 50 70 49 


Real estate salesman 43 26 13 


54 MAX FREYD 


Tape []—Continued 
PER CENTS OF EACH GROUP CHECKING 
L AFTER THE OCCUPATION 


Ship officer 10 60 44 
Shop foreman 3 50 51 
Social worker 33 30 15 
Specialty salesman 56 20 30 
Steeple-jack 6 10 18 
Stock broker 53 63 37 
Surgeon 53 30 37 
Toolmaker 3 50 32 
Traveling salesman 36 40 32 
Watchmaker tan 23 18 


Questionnaire 3. Avocational Interests 


1. The following table presents the most important differences 


in attitudes toward school subjects. 


PER CENTS CHECKING L (LIKE) 
AFTER THE SUBJECT 


SA. IND. M.E. 
Shop work 20 83 95 
Economics 80 50 86 
Sociology 67 26 60 
Mechanical drawing 33 53 88 
Manual training 30 63 93 
Ancient languages 13 17, 4 
Civics mg, 63 86 
Public speaking 53 40 53 


3. Per cents who constructed a piece of furniture or a household 
appliance other than in a school shop: 


PER CENT 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 43 
Industries seniors 75 
Mech. Eng. seniors. 79 


7. Percents making collections of 
STAMPS COINS POSTAL CARDS 


Succ. 1. i. salesmen 59 50 48 
Industries seniors 44 44 41 
Mech. Eng. seniors 55 ‘AI 46 
8. Per cents who owned cameras: 
PER CENT 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 90 
Industries seniors 75 


Mech. Eng. seniors 72 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 55 


Per cents preferring to take pictures of people rather than 
scenes : 


PER CENT 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen ; 28 
Industries seniors 23 
Mech. Eng. seniors 30 


18. Magazines read regularly: 
, NUMBER WHO READ THE MAGAZINE 
REGULARLY AMONG 


SA. IND. M.E. 
Literary Digest 12 8 5 
American Magazine 20 7 ug 
Saturday Evening Post 9 nig 19 
System yi oO 0 
Annalist 0) 5 (0) 
Outlook O 10 oO 

19. Favorite magazine: 

; SA IND. M.E 
Literary Digest 5 4 I 
American Magazine 15 8 10 
Saturday Evening Post 6 4 10 


20. Per cents who have had the impulse to express their opin- 
ions on current topics in letters to newspapers : 


PER CENT 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 62 
Industries seniors 50 
Mech. Eng. seniors 5I 

22. Per cents who have written poems : 

PER CENT 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 21 
Industries seniors 33 
Mech. Eng. seniors 44 


The same proportions between the groups held for those who 
had poems appearing in print. 
28. Median age at which the groups learned to dance: 


MEDIAN AGE (YEARS) 


Succ. 1. i. salesmen 15 
Industries seniors 17.5 
Mech. Eng. seniors 18 


30. The salesmen have engaged in each of the following activi- 
ties to approximately twice the extent of the industries or mechan- 


56 MAX FREYD 


ical engineering students: dramatics, musical organizations, de- 
bating, school politics, and public speaking. 
37. Per cents who smoke: 


PER CENT 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 80 
Industries seniors 50 
Mech. Eng. seniors 37 


40. Per cents of men who spent a vacation traveling around for 
the mere pleasure of traveling: 


PER CENT 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 52 
Industries seniors 30 
Mech. Eng. seniors 41 


42. Median number of states in which a month or more was 
spent: 


MEDIAN 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 5.25 
Industries seniors 3.00. 
Mech. Eng. seniors 2.00 


43. Median number of cities and towns lived in, for six months 
or more: 


Succ. 1. i. salesmen 4.3 
Industries seniors 3.0 
Mech. Eng. seniors 2.3 
49. Numbers having (only) a few close friends: . 
FREQUENCY 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen oO 
Industries seniors 5 
Mech. Eng. seniors 2 


Numbers having both close friends and a great many ordinary 
friends: 


FREQUENCY 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 29 
Industries seniors 22 
Mech. Eng. seniors 36 


51. Median number of persons with whom a social correspon- 
dence is maintained: 
MEDIAN NUMBER 


Succ. 1. i. salesmen Y 4 
Industries seniors 5 
Mech. Eng. seniors 3.5 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 57 


52. Median number of social letters written per week: 


MEDIAN NUMBER 


Succ. 1. i. salesmen a0 
Industries seniors 3.30 
Mech. Eng. seniors 1.90 
53. Religious beliefs: 
PER CENT 
CATH. PROT. JEWISH NO PREF, NON-BEL. 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 3 90 (a) 3 3 
Industries seniors 23 67 3 7 fe) 
Mech. Eng. seniors 3 85 5 3 5 


55. Per cents who have tried to convert anyone to their re- 
ligious point of view: 


PER CENT 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 18 
Industries seniors 37 
Mech. Eng. seniors 19 

60. Per cents believing in: 

SA IND. M.E 
The evil eye 6 fe) 2 
Yogi philosophy 13 fe) oO 
Fletcherism a7 10 37 
Vivisection 47 23 4 
Memory systems 77 43 74 
Pelmanism 27 13 16 
Mental telepathy 60 30 63 
New Thought 20 3 16 
Osteopathy 57 37 WE: 
Phrenology 40 10 49 
Astrology 27 43 14 
Character analysis (Blackford) 63 50 79 
Vegetarianism 33 47 37 

68. Per cents believing: 
PER CENT 
SA, IND. M.E. 


That they have had less than their 
share of luck 13 27 a 


71. Per cents who have fainted away: 


PER CENT 
Succ. 1. i. salesmen 37 
Industries seniors 10 


Mech. Eng. seniors 26 


58 MAX FREYD 


74. Personages considered their ideal by the three groups: 


FREQUENCY 
SA, IND. M.E. 

Lincoln II 13 18 
Roosevelt 8 I 3 
Washington 4 3 3 
Robert E. Lee 2 Ce) fe) 
Napoleon I 4 2 
Christ I I 3 
Carnegie I ee ts) 


The following personages are mentioned once by the industries 
students: Vanderlip, Merriwell, Brutus, and Moses. The follow- 
ing are mentioned once by the engineering students: Caesar, Han- 
nibal, J. P. Jones, Grant, King Richard of England, Edison, Alex- 
ander, and Aeneas. 

Brill (2) calls the answer to this question the person’s empathic 
index. The answer indicates the person’s trend of adjustment to 
the world. A certain personage is admired because of a wish to 
emulate his mode of reaction to the world. He expresses in his life 
the conscious and unconscious strivings of those who consider him 
their ideal. 


Questionnaire 4. Likes and Dislikes 

The most important group differences found are the following: 
the salesmen show a greater proportionate liking for fat men, con- 
ventions, “Life,” and interviews; the industries students show a 
greater proportionate liking for very polite people and ‘““The New 
Republic.” The per cents of the salesmen, industries students, and 
mechanical engineering students, respectively, checking L! or L 
after each of these items are: fat men: 55, 17, and 37; very polite 
people: 47, 90, and 40; conventions: 73, 53, and 49; “Life”: 97, 
77, and 93; “The New Republic” : 33, 77, and 14; interviews: 77, 
33, and 51. 


Questionnaire 5. Beliefs 
Table III shows the most important group differences found in 
attitudes toward the questions. 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 59 


Taste III 

Group Comparisons in Reactions to Questions in Questionnaire 5. Percentages 
checking Y (yes) among the two primary groups and the Case School 
Seniors in Mechanical Engineering. 


PER CENT CHECK- 
ING Y (YES) 

DO YOU BELIEVE SA. IND. M.E. 
3. That prize fights should be prohibited? ..............000. 333 20un IG 
5. That unstinted service is always rewarded? ..........000+ 70 40 49 
Pueiaiat au men are Created, CUAll .) o «dscns dusesscwsaccsens [01s tae sk 

8. That the United States should build a stronger navy than 

AAU MOCCL TAUION Cites ck aera ees eh ae hee he hears a oe hae 4340, 1c co 


10. That preparedness for war is the best guarantee of peace? 73 33 30 
15. That modern writers are not as good as the classical writers? 50 30 32 
foe Liateevery, Malninas- Nis: Price £2 co a tnccw hs wns eislne™ din ga sejeins 20s SO me 26 
17. That Mars is inhabited by living beings similar to man?... 43 26 62 
20. That few men of good taste or intelligence are found among 


thetri chris ae eels ec nl Moree ee erate eternal ci we OP c0 4 
24. That “spare the rod and spoil the child” is the best maxim 
Py USE TAIY Paiste CUUOTEN face yeu at es vaso chases sees bo ee Te Bae: 


32. That Americans are stronger physically than Europeans?.. 93 63 65 
33. That the more children a man has, the greater his value to 


FUCRCOMIUIUY 287 were sis ak Mara in Dele bis cere ew he ie 20 AS ees 
42. That the boy who does poorly in school usually turns out a 
STICCESS UE Tan ahetetee ceerahirern eet eerhoele ss einciere a nai e's 6 26 9 


44. That the accumulation of money makes a man heartless?.. 20 46 20 
45. That the government should grant pensions to the aged?.. 46 67 49 


58. That a man’s clothes are an index of his character? ...... 70 40 60 
ee bmatewarels CVer TUStMADICL. vccas 56s he cei esin's soe wee ruie 83. 50 SI 
64. That the union principle of the closed shop is better than 
the open.shop for American industry?.............. 16 36 39 
65. That Abraham Lincoln is the foremost man in American 
DSTEV Sates avalos oe nie ivi’ faa et amare 0's ao ciel mee 20 50 76 
SUMMARY 


The outstanding features of the data presented in the preceding 
pages may be summarized as follows: 


OQuestionnatre I. 


(1) A greater proportion of the sales group than the other two 
groups are of native or British Protestant stock. Their parents 
were better educated and wealthier than those of the industries 
students. They were thus afforded the advantage of a better social 
adaptation in this country, which may have been a factor in their 
choice of salesmanship as a vocation. 


¢ 


60 MAX FREYD 


(2) The industries students were apparently subjected to great- 
er maternal influence in childhood than the salesmen. We find that 
more industries students than salesmen “‘took after” their mothers; 
more resembled the mother’s side of their ancestry; more of them 
liked their mothers in preference to their fathers; more of them 
state that their mothers exercised the most influence on their lives; 
and more of them state that their mothers were dominant in the 
family. A possible explanation is that the predominant influence of 
the mother may have caused the industries students to become less 
successfully adapted toward other individuals. They may have 
clung to their mothers’ apron-strings for too long a period in child- 
hood. On the other hand, the attachment to the mother may have 
been symptomatic of more fundamental factors influencing per- 
sonality. We should expect to find among the industries students 
compensatory reactions for the weaknesses expressed in their atti- 
tudes toward their mothers, in that they may have taken an ag- 
gressive attitude toward their social environment instead of a tact- 
ful one. 

- (3) The industries students were evidently not wholly satisfied 
with their early environment. A greater proportion of them than 
of the salesmen would desire a change in their home and other 
early environmental conditions if they were to live their lives over 
again. More of them would prefer a wealthier environment, more 
refined companions, and more cheerful conditions. They were 
treated slightly worse than their brothers and sisters. Their early 
lack of tactful social adjustment is demonstrated by the fact that — 
they engaged in more-fistfights as children than the salesmen. 


Questionnaire 2. 


(4) In their choice of occupations the salesmen tend to choose 
the characteristically social occupations and the industries students 
the mechanical ones. Occupations preferred in greater proportion 
by the salesmen are: actor, automobile salesman, editor, foreign 
correspondent, lawyer, magazine writer, newspaper reporter, nov- 
elist, philanthropist, politician, preacher, real estate salesman, 
specialty salesman, and surgeon. The industries students are more 
inclined toward the following occupations: astronomer, auto fe- 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE*-MECHANICALLY INCLINED 61 


pairman, bank teller, baseball player, carpenter, draftsman, ex- 
plorer, factory manager, hotelkeeper or manager, labor arbitrator, 
locomotive engineer, machinist, mechanical engineer, musician, 
office manager, promoter, ship officer, shop foreman, stock broker, 
toolmaker, and watchmaker. It is an interesting fact that salesmen 
prefer literary occupations, while the industries students prefer 
financial occupations. 


Questionnaire 3. 


(5) In their attitudes toward school subjects the industries 
students show the expected liking for shop work, mechanical draw- 
ing, and manual training. The salesmen prefer economics, sociolo- 
gy, civics, and public speaking. 

(6) The salesmen show their social proclivities in that they 
learned to dance earlier in life and maintain a greater social cor- 
respondence than the industries students. They probably make 
themselves less objectionable by not trying to convert people to 
their religious point of view, although in this respect the indus- 
tries students show a more marked sales tendency than the sales- 
men themselves. 

(7) Salesmen are more credulous in that they tend toward a 
greater belief in pseudosciences. 

(8) Among the salesmen the ideal personage is more often 
Roosevelt and less often Lincoln. Roosevelt expresses a more 
normal vigorous empathic index. Lincoln expresses an ethical and 
conscientious attitude toward life. 

Questionnaire 4. 

(9) Salesmen show a greater preference for fat men, conven- 
tions, interviews, and “Life.” Industries students show a greater 
preference for very polite people and “The New Republic.” The 
connotations of a preference for good-natured fat men and for 
“Life” are obvious. Salesmen probably show less liking for very 
polite people because such people are less free in their social ex- 
pressions and are more difficult prospects to handle. 


Questionnaire 5. 


(10) In their beliefs salesmen show greater credulity and con- 


62 MAX FREYD 


formity with popular opinion than the industries students. The lat- 
ter display to a great extent the laboring man’s attitude. 

In most respects the mechanical engineering students occupy an 
intermediate position, although their leanings are in the direction 
of the industries students rather than the salesmen. We may con- 
clude that engineering draws men with slightly greater social pro- 
clivities than a course such as the one which the industries students 
follow. 


CHAPTER TV 


GROUP COMPARISONS BASED ON RATINGS 


Group comparisons based on ratings were made in order to deal 
with a number of traits, (some of which presumably were also 
measured by the tests and questionnaires), which seemed to be re- 
lated to the personalities studied. Ratings were obtained on only 
three groups: the two primary groups and the Case School seniors 
in mechanical engineering. The data include self-ratings by the 
members of these groups, plus ratings on them by acquaintances. 


THE METHOD 


All the ratings reported here were made on the same scale, a 
graphic rating scale which afforded ratings on twenty traits. The 
graphic rating scale is a form in which the rating is indicated by 
a check along a straight line, under which are printed descriptive 
phrases indicative of varying degrees of the trait, from one ex- 
treme to the other. The advantages of this form of scale are set 
forth in another place by the writer (6). The directions for the 
present scale and an illustrative item are given below. 


CCA ENT GerA sl ON Ge © Boe cy tetck ree serra cere aie Seine caro ne enero eure err 
INSTRUCTIONS FOR USING THE RATING SCALE 


. Let these ratings represent your own judgments. Please do not consult anyone in making 


them. 


. In rating this person on a particular trait, disregard every other trait but that one. Many 
ratings are rendered valueless because the rater allows himself to be influenced by a general 


favorable or unfavorable impression which he has formed of the person. 


; When you have satisfied yourself on the standing of this person in the trait on which you 
are rating him, place a check at the appropriate point on the horizontal line. You do not 
have to place your check directly above a descriptive phrase. You may place your check at 


any point on the line. 
Is he absent-minded or wide awake? 


Jery absent-minded. Often becomes Usually present- Always wide awake and 
ontinually absorbed abstracted and out of minded alive to present 
n thought touch with his situation 

surroundings 


In the reproduction the length of the line on which the rating is 
made is reduced. In the original it is 65% inches long. 


64 MAX FREYD 


The “good” ends of the scales were alternated in order to coun- 
teract a motor tendency to check at one edge of the blank. The 
time required for making the twenty ratings was approximately 
ten minutes. 

To score the ratings a stencil was used, one of whose edges was 
marked off for a distance equal to the length of the graphic rating 
line. This space was divided off into twenty spaces of equal length, 
consecutively numbered from left to right. The stencil was placed 
beneath the line on which the rating was made, so that this line 
coincided with the marked-off space on the stencil. The score was 
the number of the space over which the check was made. If the 
check was made over a division line between two spaces, the score 
to the right was assigned to the rating. An X-shaped check was 
scored at the intersection of the two lines, and a V-shaped check 
at the point of the V. If more than one check was made on the 
same scale for the same person, indicating doubt on the part of the 
rater, the average of the ratings was taken. Since the same stencil 
was used for all the scales, all scores read from left to right. No 
total score was obtained. 

The following additional directions were used in obtaining self- 
ratings from the industries students. Similar directions were used 
in obtaining self-ratings from the other two groups. 

“Tt is requested of each senior in Industries that he fill out the 
enclosed blank and mail it to this office. Our purpose in asking for 
this information is to provide a check on the tests which were re- 
cently given, by comparing ratings on character traits with the © 
test scores. 

“The rating scale which is enclosed was not intended for self- 
rating, but we wish you to use it in that way. Let the ratings which 
you make represent your judgments on your own traits. That is, 
you are to judge yourself, taking the point of view of an impartial 
observer. If you care to, you may add marginal comments to make 
your ratings clearer or to supplement them. 

“We wish to make it absolutely clear to you that these ratings 
will be kept confidential. None of the records will go out of this 
office. They will not be made known to the employment office or to 
any of your instructors. Do not sign your name to the blanks.” 


The scales were numbered so that they could be identified 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED _ 65 


when returned. The industries students returned their ratings by 
mail, but the other two groups rated themselves in the classroom, 
with instructions similar to the above. In order to get ratings by 
acquaintances on these men, as checks on their self-ratings, each 
member of the three groups gave the names of five men to whom 
the scale could be sent. To each of these references were sent a 
copy of the scale and a letter requesting ratings on the student. 
Out of approximately 400 rating scales sent out, 80 per cent were 
returned completely filled out. Except in rare instances, no two 
men were rated by the same judge; that is, with rare exceptions, 
no two men gave the same reference. All self-ratings and ratings 
by acquaintances were made anonymously. 

Distribution tables of self-ratings and ratings of others were 
drawn up and the interquartile ranges were calculated. The ratings 
of others include all ratings, and since some men were rated by 
five references and others by merely one, the ratings of others do 
not completely represent the groups. All of the engineering stu- 
dents were rated by three or more people, but about one-fifth of the 
other two groups were not rated at all by others. 


RESULTS 


The interquartile ranges of the self-ratings and the ratings of 
others for the three groups are shown graphically in Fig. 8. In 
order to make the results more apparent and to bring out features 
which would not otherwise be noted, the rating scale instead of the 
scale of scores is placed below the lines. 

There are several outstanding facts about these ratings. 

(1) The general tendency is for raters to make checks directly 
above descriptive phrases. This is to some extent an error in the 
use of the scale which should be overcome with practice, and to 
some extent a weakness in the scale itself. 

(2) Several of the scales, especially those for Traits 1 and 2, 
are shown by the interquartile ranges to be defective. The central 
phrase in every scale should be a neutral one, or should express 
the most common condition of the trait found in the population 
at large. The defects of these two scales are made evident by the 
displacement of the distributions, due to the fact that the central 


66 MAX FREYD 


phrases are more nearly allied in meaning to the unfavorable than 
the favorable ones. 

(3) Several other scales,—those for Traits 16 and 17, for in- 
stance,—are defective because, as indicated by the narrow range 
of ratings, the intermediate phrases are more nearly like the ex- 
tremes than they are like the central phrase. Raters therefore 
tended to avoid them. 

(4) The general trend is for acquaintances to rate the men 
higher or more favorably than they would rate themselves. This is 
true for Traits 1, 2, 3, 4,6, 7,9, 11, 12,14, 19, and 20. Whether this 
is due to self-depreciation on the part of the subjects of the study 
or to flattery on the part of their acquaintances, cannot be deter- 
mined. As we are not in possession of the facts, the ratings must be 
accepted at face value. 

(5) The differences between the groups in self-ratings and in 
the ratings of others are in most cases slight, but they gain sig- 
nificance from the fact that in almost every case where a difference 
appears in self-ratings it is corroborated by the ratings of others, 
and from the fact that the differences are consistent. The direc- 
tions of the differences between the successful life insurance sales- 
men and the industries seniors are shown below, based on self- 
ratings. 

1. Salesmen are more wide-awake 
2. Salesmen are more good-natured 
3. Salesmen are neater 
4. Salesmen are more excitable 
7. Salesmen are less self-conscious 
g. Salesmen have a more impressive bearing 
*10, Salesmen are more self-confident 
II. Salesmen are more even-tempered 
13. Salesmen are more adaptable 
*14. Salesmen make friends more quickly © 
*15. Salesmen are more open-hearted 
18. Salesmen are more talkative 
*20. Salesmen work faster 


The differences starred are those which may be called very sig- 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 67 


nificant, according to the criterion for the significance of differ- 
ences explained in Chapter 2. 

The above differences are reversed by the ratings of others in 
Traits 9, 11, and 20. Every one of the differences but these three is 
corroborated by the ratings of others on the men. In addition, the 
differences are borne out by the self-ratings of the seniors in 
mechanical engineering. These self-ratings differ from the self- 


ceorsume nist ames occa et 
Sales 
——— 
eonenee cree 
Industries 
a 
cenerfecammaiemc ener 
Mech. Eng- 
ef 
Very absent-minded. Often becomes Usually present- Always wide awake and 
Continually absorbed abstracted and out of minded alive to present 
in thought touch with his situation 
surroundings 2 
Trait 2 
me Rep 
Sales 
eee 
Ind. 
—__}-—____ 
Me E. 
—j—_ 
Very good-natured. Agreeable Rather glum and Grouchy and V i 
nites : ll-natured 
Has winning unresponsive unpl bf ne 
manner : npleasant and uncivil 
Trait 2 
eon tess ee 
Sales 
—_—}—. 
Sores Seen 
Ind. 
a oo 
ooceerencomenares 
Me E. } 
Extremely neat Appropriately and Inconspicuous Somewhat careless Very slovenly 
and clean. Almost ~ neatly dressed in dress in his dress and unkempt 
a dude. 
Trarus 


Fic. 8a. Interquartile Ranges of Ratings. 


Vertical lines indicate medians. Heavy lines indicate self-ratings and light lines 
the ratings of others. 


68 MAX FREYD 


ratings of the salesmen in the same direction as do those of the in- 
dustries seniors in every one of the traits in the above list. In ap- 
proximately half the traits they differ more from the salesmen than 
the industries seniors do, but in every case this difference is in the 
same direction as the industries seniors. 


Eee reo Saco 
Sales 
nana 
Industries BA 
comers 
Meche Eng. 
Very excitable and Easily stirred Usually cool and Always cool-headed 
high-strung self-contained and collected 
Trait 4 
See aT 
Sales i 
Industries 
ee 
Mech. Eng. ‘ 
seer i in Asserts himself Very aggressive 
Very submissive Saree bh vhe frequently and insistent 
Trait 5 
Ee eT 
Sales 
——_—_—_——" 
a ed 
Industries 
ooo, 
oemoramren eum 
Meche Eng 
—————_—_—_— 
d Careful Usually accurate Careless Tnexact and 
Med dacireer and reliable negligent 
Trait 6 


Fic. 8b. Interquartile Ranges of Ratings. 


Vertical lines indicate medians. Heavy lines indicate self-ratings and light lines 
the ratings of others. 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 69 
Oe 
Sales 
a 
Industries 
_—_—_—— HY 
EE 
Meche Eng. 
a een 
Always at ease Seldom flustered by Self-conscious Frequently Painfully self-con- 

actions or remarks on occasions embarrassed scious and ill at 

with reference ease. Very sensitive 

to himself 

Tra ite. 
se celuesieseraiaiemmmmansianadaen aaememmenimaammmial 
Sales 
era a TECTED 
Industries 
ep ET 

Mech. Eng. 


Always acts on 
the spur of the 
montent 


Sales 
Industries 


Mech. Eng» 


Looked down on 


Fic. 8c. 


Impulsive. Always Shows moderate Cautious, deliberate Extremely wary and 

makes prompt deliberation and considerate hesitant. Acts only 

decision after careful con- 
sideration 


Trait 8 


eorsmenpecen 
__—t+ 
Se ST ETE RR 
See 
SSR eT a MEETS 
jnecnnmencare esas 


Excites admiration. 
Very impressive 


Noticeable for good 


Unimpressive physique d 
physique and bearing 


and bearing 


Trait 9 


Interquartile Ranges of Ratings. 


Vertical lines indicate medians. Heavy lines indicate self-ratings and light lines 


the ratings of others. 


70 


Sales 


Industries 


Mech. Enge 


Judges himself 
capable of 


Exaggerates 
his abilities 


MAX FREYD 


ee 
eee et es 


Knows just what 
he is capable of 


Underestimates his 
own abilities 


anything 


Sales 


Industries 


Meche Eng. 


Often has extreme 
‘ups or downs in 

mood. Shows ela- 
tion or depression 


Sales 


Industries 


Mech. Eng- 


Never speaks 
depreciatingly 
of others 


Fic. 8d. 


Trait 10 


a 
ee 
Usually even- Even-tempered. 


Has ups or downs Shows change of 


at times without feelings when con- tempered 
apparent reason ditions warrant 
Trait 1l 
rasa npr ar er 
———_— 
orrreesar RTE 
st 
Seen gee 
+———_—_— 
Rarely criticises  Coniments on out- Criticises 
others standing weaknesses others 


or faults of others 


Trait 12 


Interquartile Ranges of Ratings. 


Considers himself 
incapable of much 
success 


Maintains the same 
mood in spite of 
cause for changing 


Extremely critical 
of others 


Vertical lines indicate medians. Heavy lines indicate self-ratings and light lines 


the ratings of others. 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 


71 
Bree ele erase eT 
Sales 
ee 
Industries 
—_—t+ 
AED RARER SNEED A OTE 
Mech. Eng. 
re re 
Hidebound. Slow to take up Progressive Quick to pick Is always adapting 
Runs in a rut new ideas tendencies up new ways himself and taking 
and habits up new ideas 
Trait 13 
amo reap isfor ns 
Sales 
es enna 
hen eeeeeredem nee 
Industries 
———_} —__. 
Meche Eng. 


——E——— 


Makes friends quickly 


Has quite a number 
and easily. Very 


More interested in ideas 
of friends 


Lives almost 
or things thanin persons by Ricans entirely 
popular 
Trait 14 
GER ERNIE LET PRR OE SOE 
Sales 
ee 
PEE LTE LE 
Industries 
Ht 
ee RR 
Mech. Eng. 


th 


Often confesses his 
thoughts and feelings 
to friends and 
acquaintances 


At times unburdens 
spontaneously to 


Will occasionally Never unburdens. 
friends 


unburden when Rarely talks about 
questioned himself 


Trait 15 


Fic. 8e. Interquartile Ranges of Ratings. 


Vertical lines indicate medians. Heavy lines indicate self-ratings and light lines 
the ratings of others. 


72 MAX FREYD 


emersseat 
Sales 
+ 
cE AD 
Industries 
Sere 
cepa 
Meche Eng; 
oe 
Avoids companion- Associates with Shows a normal, Gives much time Associates more 
ship of women women wholesome interest to the ladies with women than 
infrequently in feminine society with men. A 
Jady’s man 
Trait 16 
er dE 
Sales 
eenl ores 
Industries 
mela 
Mech. Eng- 
ee 
Daredevil. Shows Will take every Gets “cold feet” Risks nothing. 
great “nerve” reasonable chance Takes no-chances 
Trait 17 
eer 
Sales 
eaten ran rr EER 
du 8 
Industrie 
= 
Mech. Eng. 
> 
Talks seldom. Does not uphold his Moderately More than upholds Great talker. 
When questioned end of the con- talkative his end of the Always going 
answers briefly versation conversation 
Trait 18 


Fic. 8f. Interquartile Ranges of Ratings. 


Vertical lines indicate medians. Heavy lines indicate self-ratings and light lines 
the ratings of others. 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 73 


excercise 
Sales p 
SSR LE 
Industries 
Ee eee 
Meche Eng- 
———___ + ____ 
ia- Shows poor Shows some.appre- Shows good Has excellent taste 
oe lcs hai taste r ciation of artistic artistic judg- in art, music and 
Taste runs to the value ment literature 
cheap and ugly 
Trait 19 
erence 
Sales 
ee ee Sere meer pene 
Industries 
emer sien ferns 
e Eng. 
Mech g 
Ext ly ‘quick. Fast worker Works just fast Slow worker. 
Raphi worker enough to get by Barely moves 
Trait 20 


Fic. 8g. Interquartile Ranges of Ratings. 


Vertical lines indicate medians. Heavy lines indicate self-ratings and light lines 
the ratings of others. 


SUMMARY 

Although the rated differences are not so great as to withstand 
detailed statistical examination, they gain significance from the 
fact that they are psychologically consistent, that self-ratings and 
the ratings of others corroborate each other in most of the traits, 
and that the differences between the primary groups in self-ratings 
are borne out by the self-ratings of engineering seniors. 

The most significant differences between the primary groups 
are in Traits 4, 10, 14, and 15. They lead to the conclusion that 
salesmen are more excitable, more self-confident, and more open- 
hearted than industries seniors, and make friends more quickly. 

There is a less significant tendency for salesmen to be more wide- 
awake, good-natured, adaptable, and talkative, neater, and less 
self-conscious than industries seniors. 


GHAP DER W 


INTERCORRELATIONS OF TESTS AND RATINGS 


Though not an application of Spearman’s method of proving 
the existence of a general common factor, the method to be de- 
scribed is related to it in such an intimate way that it will be neces- 
sary to give first a brief summary of the development of Spear- 
man’s two factor theory (3, 10, 18). 


THE THEORY OF GENERAL ABILITY 


Spearman first put forth his theory of general ability in 1904 
(18). He found that after intercorrelating a number of measure- 
ments of mental abilities, the correlation coefficients could easily 
be arranged in a hierarchical order, 7.e., so that on the whole each 
coefficient was greater than any to the right of it in the same row 
or below it in the same column. 


“This fact of ‘hierarchical’ order which he had thus discovered 
was taken by Professor Spearman to indicate the presence of some 
common fundamental function which saturates in different degrees 
the different activities, and is the sole cause of correlation between 
them except in the case of very similar activities. 

“Tt can easily be shown that if all the correlations are due solely 
to one common or general factor, then the correlation coefficients - 
will be in perfect hierarchical order. 

“Since clearly perfect hierarchical order cannot be expected in 
any experimental research, it becomes important to. know what 
deviation from prefection can be allowed without giving up the 
idea of a general factor: or on the other hand, what approach to 
perfection can be attained without the presence of a general fac- 
tor.” (3, pp. 165-166) 

Spearman devised a formula for correcting for observational 
errors which, applied to his correlation coefficients, enabled him 
to arrange them in perfect hierarchical order. The suppositions 
underlying this formula have been called in serious question by 


Thomson (3). 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 75 


Researches between 1904 and 1912 differed in the degree of 
hierarchical order obtained. In 1912 Hart and Spearman pro- 
posed a criterion for the existence of a hierarchical order, whose 
underlying idea was that the correlation of adjacent columns of 
correlation coefficients, if perfect hierarchical order existed, would 
equal unity, and that its value is therefore a measure of the com- 
pleteness of the hierarchical order. 

We need not concern ourselves in detail with the criticisms lev- 
eled against the theory by Thomson, aside from noting that he 
produced hierarchical order through a random overlapping of 
group factors in the absence of a general factor, and that he at- 
tacks the validity of Spearman’s correctional formulae. He re- 
places Spearman’s two-factor theory (a factor specific to the 
ability, and general common factor: intelligence) by a sampling 
theory of ability, preferring “to think of a number of factors at 
play in the carrying out of any activity such as a mental test, these 
factors being a sample of all those which the individual has at his 
command.” (3, p. 188) 


MeETHOD EMPLOYED IN THIS STUDY 


A possibility of the table of intercorrelations which seems to 
have been overlooked by these writers is to study through them the 
differences existing between groups as regards the interrelation- 
ship of their traits. It cannot be said that differences greater than 
those to be expected by chance between two tables of intercorrela- 
tions of the same measurements obtained from two different 
groups of subjects would account for two general factors, but it 
seems possible that these differences would at least show what 
specific factors were common to the members of a group. Sup- 
pose that in Group A we find the three highest intercorrelating 
measurements to be 1, 2, and 3; and in Group B the three measure- 
ments showing the highest intercorrelations to be 8, 9, and 10; 
all these intercorrelations to be over +-.90. Even though these dif- 
ferences were too great to be ascribed to errors of observation, 
they could not be attributed to the degree to which the variables 
were saturated with a general common factor. They must be due 
to the constitution of the two groups, and these varying factors in 


76 MAX FREYD 


the two groups can only be described in terms of the intercorre- 
lating traits themselves. Thus, for unknown reasons, Traits I, 2, 
and 3 always accompany each other in equal degrees in the mem- 
bers of Group A, forming a constellation of traits for that group; 
similarly, Traits 8, 9, and 10 form a constellation for Group B. 

A second possibility is to make tables of the intercorrelations 
of traits obtained from merging the two groups, and then having 
found what traits form constellations, all men considered, to de- 
termine to what degree the groups differ in the extent of the con- 
stellation which they possess. If, for instance, we should find 
that Traits 5, 6, and 7 formed a constellation with the data from 
all the groups combined, it would be interesting to note if the 
groups differed in their possession of these traits, the latter accom- 
panying each other in a large amount in one group and in a small 
amount in the other group. This could be determined by comparing 
distribution tables of the amounts of each trait possessed by the 
two groups. 

I have used both of these procedures with the groups on which 
the figures were available: the two primary groups and the Case 
School seniors in mechanical engineering. The correlations were 
all obtained by the Spearman fourfold table method, which 
although merely an approximation and subject to considerable 
error, is perhaps as reliable as any, considering the number of 
persons in the groups. The following tables of intercorrelations of 
measurements were obtained : 

1. Intercorrelations of self-ratings for the sales primary group. 

2. Intercorrelations of self-ratings for the mechanical primary 
group. Trait 17 was omitted, as the form of distribution of this 
trait did not permit of the calculation of correlations. 

3. Intercorrelations of self-ratings for the Case School seniors 
in mechanical engineering. Trait 17 was omitted. 

4. Intercorrelations of average ratings for 84 cases. These 84 
cases were members of the three preceding groups who had been 
rated by two or more acquaintances. The average rating for any 
man in any trait was a figure obtained by first averaging the opin- 
ion of his acquaintances on this trait, and then averaging this com- 
bined opinion with the man’s self-rating on that trait, giving his 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED rip 


self-rating and the combined judgment of his acquaintances equal 
weight. 

5. Intercorrelations of all test scores for the sales primary 
group. 

6. Intercorrelations of all test scores for the mechanical pri- 
mary group. 

7. Intercorrelations of all test scores for the 84 men mentioned 
in connection with the fourth table above. 

8. Correlations of all test scores with the average ratings of 
these 84 men. 

These tables of intercorrelations are not reproduced here. 

In calculating the correlation coefficients where ratings were 
concerned, one end of the range of actual ratings was arbitrarily 
accepted as the better end. In many of the scales either end repre- 
sents an extreme which is undesirable, but checks were rarely 
made over these extremes. Within the limits of distributions of 
checks, the good end is easily distinguished. In correlating ratings, 
the rating at the ‘good’ end of the scale was called high, and the 
trait was called by the ‘good’ name. In doing this numerical scores 
were disregarded as expressions of the amount of the trait, and 
were used merely to obtain medians. The effect is as if the good 
end of the scales were always to the right instead of being alter- 
nated, and as if a rating to the right of the median were consid- 
ered high and to the left low, and the name of the trait were always 
the right extreme. 

In obtaining intercorrelations where tests were concerned, a 
high score represented a high standing. 

It is unfortunate that writers on the general factor theory give 
us no method for the closest approximation to hierarchical order 
where that order is not immediately and obviously made. Brown 
and Thomson mention in passing two methods, or rather two 
variations of the same method (3, p. 177, footnote, and p. 185). 
The method rests on the probability that the ability represented 
in the upper row and left-hand column in a hierarchical order 
approaching perfection will have a larger total correlation than 
any other ability represented in the table, and that the total cor- 
relations of the other abilities will be in the same order as their 


78 MAX FREYD 


position in the table. A brief method of ranging the measured 
abilities in hierarchical order is, therefore, to range them in the 
order of the sums of their correlations with the other abilities 
(their total correlation). 

In doing this we are immediately confronted with the question: 
shall we take the algebraical totals of the correlation coefficients 
or shall we disregard the signs in computing the sums? In the 
one example given by Brown and Thomson all the coefficients are 
positive. If, however, the hierarchy were arranged with only high 
positive coefficients in the upper left-hand corner, we should ex- 
pect a number of high negative correlation coefficients in the lower 
right-hand corner. The last situation is practically impossible, since 
a group of traits cannot show very high negative intercorrelations. 
It is possible for a group of traits to show a great many high posi- 
tive intercorrelations and a few negative ones. Thus, Traits 1, 2, 
and 3, may intercorrelate very highly (averaging ++.90, for ex- 
ample), and Trait 4 may correlate negatively with each of these 
traits. The constellation of traits would then consist of Traits 1, 
2, 3, and 4, the first three accompanying each other to the same 
degree and being accompanied by inverse amounts of Trait 4. 

In obtaining total correlations, therefore, the signs of the cor- 
relation coefficients have been ignored. 


RESULTS 


As the tables of intercorrelations will not be reproduced here, 
the reader will have to keep in mind what they aim to present. 
Each of the eight tables mentioned contains all the correlation 
coefficients resulting when each of the variables (ratings or tests) 
is correlated with each of the other variables with which the par- 
ticular table is concerned. In addition, for each variable in each 
table, the total correlation is given, a figure which represents the 
sum of the correlation coefficients of that variable with each of 
the other variables in the table, the signs of the coefficients being 
neglected. 

As a preliminary step, the total coefficients of the variables (self- 
ratings) in the first table were correlated with those in the second 
table and with those in the third table, and those in the second table 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 79. 


with those in the third table. These correlation coefficients were 
calculated by the rank order method. Thus in the first table, Trait 
2 ranked first with a total correlation of 7.37, in the second table 
Trait 2 ranked fourteenth with a total correlation of 4.77, and in 
the third table Trait 2 ranked thirteenth with a total correlation 
of 5.05. The correlation of the values of the total correlation coef- 
ficients in the first and second tables is —.21, first and third —.13, 
and second and third +.27. In other words, the figures for the 
sales group correlate negatively with those for the two groups of 
mechanics students, whereas the latter correlate positively with 
each other. This indicates that the two groups of mechanics stu- 
dents will resemble each other as regards their constellations of 
traits more closely than either will resemble the sales group. 

Out of each of the first three tables of intercorrelations the five 
traits with the largest total correlations were chosen. The inter- 
correlations of these traits are given below. 

‘Sales primary group (data from first table) : 


TRAIT 2 II 19 15 6 
2 +.64 -.51 —A5 73 
II +.71 —.66 +.56 
19 —.71 +.31 
15 —.56 
Mechanical primary group (data from second table) : 
TRAIT. 5 8 18 I 4 9 
8 —.51 +.51 —.59 .00 
18 +.66 +16 +.977 
I +.51 +.51 
4 +.68 
Case School seniors (data from third table) : 
TRAIT 18 4 5 13 16 
18 gl aero? tooy +.59 
4 +.64 37 +.40 
5 + .66 +.28 
13 +.56 


In each of the above cases the traits are arranged in the order 
of their total correlations. In the first table, the five traits showing 
the highest total correlations are in order, 2, I1, 19, 15, and 6. 

In the sales group positive amounts of Traits 2, 11, 19, and 6, 


80 MAX FREYD 


accompany negative amounts of Trait 15. The constellation for 
this group is therefore the following: 
2. Good-nature 
11. Even temper 
19. Artistic taste 
6. Accuracy in work 
15. Close-heartedness 
It should not be assumed that these phrases describe the group. 
They represent extremes of traits which accompany each other in 
these individuals. It is just as logical to give the names of the op- 
posite traits to the constellation. By reference to Fig. 8 we find that 
the salesmen are more good-natured than the industries. students, 
whereas the latter are more close-hearted. No important differ- . 
ences appear with respect to artistic taste, accuracy in work and 
even temper. The discriminating value of this constellation is 
therefore very slight. oni 
For the industries seniors Traits 18, 1, 4, and 9 inter-correlate 
positively. Trait 8 shows no consistent relationship to the other 
traits and is consequently omitted in naming the constellation: 
18. Talkativeness 
1. Present-mindedness 
4. Cool-headedness 
9. Good bearing 
Referring to Fig. 8, salesmen excel in talkativeness and present- 
mindedness, whereas the industries seniors excel in the other two 
traits. | 
The constellation for the seniors in mechanical engineering is: 
18. Talkativeness 
4. Cool-headedness 
5. Self-assertion 
13. Flexibility 
16. Sociability with the other sex 
No valuable conclusions as to group differences in constellations 
of traits can be drawn from these results. 
Turning to the intercorrelations of average ratings (fourth 
table), we find the intercorrelations of the five traits with the 
largest total correlations to be as follows: 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 81 


TRAITS . 18 13 I 2 20 
18 +.37 -+-.10 +.16 +.37 
13 +.45 +.29 +.66 

I +.43 +.51 
2 +.16 


The constellation, though not very coherent, consists of the fol- 
lowing traits: 
18. Talkativeness 
13. Flexibility 
1. Present-mindedness 
2. Good-nature 
20. Quickness in work 

In every one of these traits the sales group excels the industries 
students. Here we have the basis for a group differentiation as 
regards a constellation of traits. These traits form a constellation, 
perhaps in the general population, and also individually differen- 
tiate the two groups. The terms in the above list are then the best 
oties to apply to the general traits of the groups in differentiating 
them. 

Similar comparisons with regard to test scores are less reliable 
since we have included several measures from the Kent-Rosanoff 
Test which are very closely related. 

The five test scores with the largest total correlations for the 
sales group (fifth table) are all in the Kent-Rosanoff Test, being 
Adjective and Adverb Responses, Noun Responses, Speech-Habit 
Responses, Contrast Responses, and Responses with a Common- 
ality Value of 1-5. The comparison of these results with those of 
the sixth table produced entirely negative results. No differentiat- 
ing constellations were discovered. 

The intercorrelations of test scores for three groups combined 
(seventh table) yield more favorable results. The intercorrelations 
of the five tests with the largest total correlation are given below. 
All are in the Will-Temperament Test. 


TEST PT.9 PTS.IANDIO PT.9Q,F. POCO ee rr. Ast 
Pt.9 +.03 —.61 + .31 +.19 
Pts) wand-1o —.16 +.25 +.43 
IDE Orat: —.48 —.37 


Brie dL +.13 


82 MAX FREYD 


The constellation consists of negative amounts of Part 9, ratio, 
accompanying positive amounts of all the other tests. 

An ideal arrangement would exist here if one group of subjects 
excelled the other in all of these tests except Part 9, ratio, and if 
every test in the five correlated highly with the constellation of 
rated traits on the preceding page. We should then have found a 
differentiating constellation of rated traits and adequate measures 
cf them for use on other groups of subjects. 

The sales primary group excels the industries group in Part 9, 
Part 6, letters, and Part 4, ratio. The industries students excel in 
Part 9, ratio, and very slightly in Parts 1 and 10. This seems to 
offer a possibility that the ideal arrangement would be obtained. 
The correlations of each of the five tests with each of the five 
ratings are given below (from eighth table). 





TEST TRAIT 18 13 I 2 20 
Pt. 9 Paid 3) 4 =.257 9-349 Bog anodes 
Pts. I and Io 00 +.22 +.16 +.16 00 
PtOnie + .06 —.37 00 + .06 —.28 
PteOnels +.13 +.25 +.03 +.13 +.03 
PteAyeys —.16 .0O + .03 —.22 —.06 


This random group of correlation coefficients closes this line of | 
approach. 


SUMMARY 


The results of this attempt to find differentiating constellations 
of traits are for the most part negative. This may be due partially 
to the unreliability of the correlation coefficients, and partly to 
the nature of the method for selecting the traits entering into the 
constellation. 

The intercorrelations of average ratings showed the most posi- 
tive results. With the data from the three groups combined, the 
following traits formed a constellation: 


18. Talkativeness 

13. Flexibility or adaptability 
1. Present-mindedness 

2. Good-nature 

20. Quickness in work 


In all of these traits the salesmen rate higher than the industries 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 83 


seniors. The conclusion to be drawn from this is that the above 
five traits form a constellation (as far as our data show) and that 
the salesmen are distinguished from those who are mechanically 
inclined in that the former possess these traits to a more marked 
degree. Of all the rated differences between the two groups, these 
five traits could most readily be represented by one distribution 
curve on which salesmen and mechanically inclined people would 
occupy distinct positions. 


CHAPTER VI 


APPLICATION OF RESULTS IN A TOTAL SCORE 


It is of interest to know how well the two general groups that 
are dealt with in this study can be differentiated by a total score 
which takes into consideration the significant individual items. If 
the items can be combined in such a way as to produce a total score 
which will clearly differentiate between men of extreme mechani- 
cal tendencies and those of sales tendencies, we shall have a con- 
venient mode of discovering the propensities of an individual, and 
can use this information for vocational guidance along broad lines 
rather than specific ones,—lines which will probably lead to greater 
vocational happiness than any other method of vocational guidance 
can afford. 

We have found that no single test or other measurement com- 
pletely differentiates the two primary groups. If the most sig- 
nificant measurements are combined we shall have a total score 
which, although it may not differentiate as well as the most sig- 
nificant individual test, will yield the best combination of differen- 
tiation and reliability. Although an individual may not conform 
to his group in getting a high score in a certain test he may make 
up for this by having all of the interests of his group, and this re- . 
flected in his total score will place him properly. The extreme in- 
dividuals will have a greater number of the interests and abilities 
of their group than will any of the intermediate individuals. 


Tue MetTHOD 
The method of combining scores offers an interesting problem. 
I have followed with some modifications, the procedure of Ream 
(17). The ratings and all the questionnaires but 2 and 4 were left 
out of consideration because of the difficulty of gathering the ma- 
terial and scoring the blanks in any future applications of the 
method. 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 85 


The application of the method of combining scores to the ques- 
tionnaires has already been explained (7). It need be necessary 
only to review briefly what that procedure involves. 

The problem is to discover the significant group differences in 
answers to particular items in the questionnaires, and to bring 
these differences together into a total scoring method by which 
their cumulative differentiating power will be a maximum. The 
steps in the solution of this problem are as follows: 

1. For each of the two groups to be compared, make tables 
showing the frequency with which each symbol in the question- 
naires is checked. 

2. Select for statistical treatment those symbols which seem 
to show significant differences in the proportions of the two groups 
checking them. 

3. In the case selected, determine the difference in proportion. 

4. Determine the standard error of the difference in proportion 
by the formula given by Yule (formula 6, p. 269). The size of 
this standard error is an index of the probability of the difference 
in proportions arising through chance due to the fact that we have 
merely sampled the total number of persons engaged in the two 
types of occupation; in other words, it is an index of the univer- 
sality of our findings. 

5. List the cases in which the difference in proportions is at 
least twice as great as its standard error. These items should all re- 
ceive equal weight in the total score. Yule claims that if the differ- 
ence in proportion does not exceed three times the error of the 
difference, it may be obliterated by an error of simple sampling on 
taking fresh samples in the same way from the same material. But 
for practical purposes the probability of the difference being ob- 
literated is very little less if the error is twice the difference in pro- 
portion, and this enables us to use a great many more items. 

6. Determine which items will enter into the total score in a pos- 
itive way and which in a negative way. This will depend on which 
group it is desired to favor in the total score. Thus, if we wish to 
“favor” the sales group, we assign positive values to symbols 
which are checked by a larger proportion of the salesmen than the 
students of mechanics, and negative values to symbols where the 


86 MAX FREYD 


opposite condition exists. The resultant total scores will reveal 
“higher” scores on the part of the salesmen, but this does not in- 
dicate a superiority, since the scores are merely relative, the main 
object being to differentiate the groups. It does not matter which 
group we select to assign the higher scores, but having selected one, 
plus and minus signs should be consistent throughout. All symbols 
should be given equal value, that is -+-1 or —1; since the criterion 
for inclusion is high (see 5 above) no weighting of symbols is 
necessary. 

7. The total score for any person will be the algebraical sum of 
the positive and negative values attached to the significant items 
(symbols) which he checks. 

The application of this method to test scores is fairly obvious. 
In the case of the two primary groups, critical scores were found 
by inspection which divided the distributions for the two groups 
into sections in which there were significantly different propor- 
tions of the members of the groups. For example, critical scores 
were set at 2 and 11 for the number of contrast responses in the 
Kent-Rosanoff Test. Seventeen per cent of the sales group and 
53 per cent of the industries group obtained scores of 2 or less. 
Forty per cent of the sales group and 7 per cent of the industries 
group obtained scores of 11 or more. Both of these differences 
are significant and consequently enter into the total scores. The sig- 
nificances of the differences in proportion may be determined in the 
same manner and by the same formula as differences in propor- 
tions checking the symbols in the questionnaires. Thus, scores. of 
II or more in the number of contrast reponses may be treated the 
same as checking D after an item in a questionnaire; scores of 2 
or less may be treated as checking L, and scores of 3 to Io inclu- 
sive as checking ?. The significant differences are in the propor- 
tions checking L and D (scoring above 11 or below 2). Setting 
critical scores corresponds to the second step in the above outline. 

A possible objection to this scoring method is that it leaves out 
of consideration in most cases the majority of the groups;that is, 
the majority of both groups may obtain scores of 3 to 10 inclusive 
in the number of contrast responses. This objection is not valid for 
the following reasons: 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 87 


I have not set critical scores nor included in the total score items 
of questionnaires, no matter how significant the differences in pro- 
portion may have been, unless a fair proportion of the total num- 
ber of individuals were taken into consideration. There would be 
no point in setting a critical score if only two members of one 
group and none of the other group were beyond it, or accepting 
an item (in a questionnaire) which was checked by 2 per cent of 
one group and 8 per cent of the other. It would require a great 
number of such partial scores to obtain a total score which would 
differentiate. f 

Those whose scores do not fall into any of the compartments 
formed by the critical scores and who consequently do not receive 
either a plus or a minus score for that measure, are not totally 
ignored in the composite score for that reason. Their score for that 
test is zero. This makes the dividing line between the two groups 
in the total score tend to be around zero, a convenient place for it. 
It also makes scoring a simpler matter. The method could be made 
more obvious by assigning to all those who score below 2 in the 
number of contrast responses a score of 1 toward their total score, 
assigning 2 to those who score from 3 to 10, and assigning 3 to 
those who score 11 or above. 

A third answer to this objection is that even if a certain propor- 
tion of the groups were ignored in the total score because of their 
scores in any individual measurements, we should still have a 
logical basis for differentiation with our total score. We may 
assume that the factors which operate to cause one to go into an 
occupation are very diverse, and that any two or three are suf- 
ficient to place him in that occupation. Then as long as an indi- 
vidual falls into compartments showing significant differences in 
two or more tests or answers to questionnaires, he shows evidence 
of having been influenced by those two factors to place him in the 
occupation in which he finds himself. Only the extreme individuals 
are influenced by all of the factors. 


RESULTS 


The individual items from the two questionnaires and the tests 
which entered into the final score for differentiating the industries 


88 MAX FREYD 


seniors from the thirty successful life insurance salesmen, do not 
in every case differentiate the secondary groups from each other, 
but the results on the secondary groups were not tabulated until 
the final scoring method was drawn up. 

In determining differences in proportions of symbols checked 
in Questionnaire 4, L! and L were combined and D and D! were 
combined, and not tabulated separately. The reason for doing this 
was that another form of the blanks in which only one kind of L 
and D occurred was given to most of the secondary groups, and if 
we wished to score them according to the final scoring method we 
should not have been able to do so unless we made this change. 

The items which entered into the total score for differentiating 
the sales from the mechanical groups are given in Table 4 on the 
following page. The scoring method was decided upon by com- 
paring the two primary groups, and the results of this comparison 
are in Table 4. 

In obtaining the total scores the sales group was favored; that 
is, where a greater proportion of salesmen than industries students 
checked a given symbol, checking that symbol counted +-1 toward 
the total score, and where the opposite relationship held, checking 
the symbol counted —1 toward the total score. | 

One member of the primary sales group failed to fill out several 
of the forms, and his figures are omitted entirely in the presenta- 
tion of results. Three members of this group also failed to com- 
plete parts of Test IX. 

Fig. 9 shows the results of the composite scoring method on the ~ 
two primary groups. In this figure are shown the total composite 
scores, composite scores on tests alone, and on Questionnaires 2 
and 4, separately and combined. Each component of the total com- 
posite score is very effective in differentiating the two groups." 
The total score is, however, more effective than any of the compo- 


1 The only check we have on the reliability of these scores is the following: 
Eleven men in the Division of Cooperative Research at Carnegie Institute of 
Technology filled out Questionnaire 4 twice at an interval of one month. Their 
scores were obtained on those items which enter into the total score and occur 
in that questionnaire. Of the eleven, five obtained the same total score on this 
questionnaire, and four others gained or lost one point. ; 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 89 


TABLE IV 


Items which Entered into the Total Scoring Method for Differentiating Sales- 
men from the Mechanically Inclined. These are the items toward which the 
two primary groups (Sales. and Industries) differ in their attitudes. Check- 
ing the symbol after the given item or making the critical score was ac- 
corded the score in the last column. 


TEST OR QUEST, ITEM CRIT. SCORE PER CENT MAKING WEIGHT 


OR SYMBOL CRITICAL SCORES 
OR CHECKING SYM. 
Sales Industries 
Test IX 
Part 5 2.10 or more 52 Ty; +1 
Part. 5 1.89 or less 26 60 —I 
Part ti 16 or more 30 73 —I 
Partert 14 or less 44 13 +1 
Part 9, ratio 1.20 or more 17 43 —I 
race, 2 6 or more 60 20 +1 
Patter 3. +~=orless 27 70 —I 


Kent-Rosanoff Test 


Contrast Responses II ormore 40 07 +1 
Contrast Responses 2 or less 17 53 — 
Questionnaire 2 
Actor. L 46 20 +1 
Astronomer L 13 36 —I 
Auto repairman it 10 46 —I 
Draftsman L 10 43 —I 
Factory manager 1 40 90 —I 
Factory manager D 53 03 +1 
Locomotive engineer L 20 43 —I 
Machinist ib 10 50 —I 
Machinist D 63 26 +1 
Magazine writer ib 53 23 +1 
Magazine writer D 20 50 —I 
Preacher igs 23 03 +1 
Ship officer LZ 10 60 —I 
Ship officer D 56 20 +1 
Shop foreman L 03 56 —I 
Shop foreman D 73 16 +1 
Specialty salesman Li 56 20 +1 
Toolmaker L 03 50 —I 
Toolmaker D 70 26 +1 
Watchmaker 15, 03 23 —I 
Questionnaire 4 
Fat men L! or L 53 17 +1 
Fat men DorD! 00 30 —I 
Very polite people L!orL 47 90 —t1 
Very polite people ? 33 00 +1 
Conventions D or D! 07 27 —I 
“Life” Lior L 97 ofe) +1 
“Lite” re 00 23 —I 
“New Republic” Bilgorals 33 ao, —I 
“New Republic” ? 63 23 +1 
Interviews Lior: "7 33 +41 


Interviews Robot) | 22 67 —I 


90 MAX FREYD 


ral ate Questionnaire 4 
wl pl gt de Choice of Occup. 
eg Eg BE eee Quest. 4 and 


Choice of Ocoup. 


feces SAB 


Frequency 
of 


Total Score 
re yp 
. 70 7 ° $ Osa: 


& 
2 


Fic. 9 


Distribution of Total Scores and Scores on Separate Blanks for Thirty 
Industries Seniors (unshaded area) and Twenty-nine Successful 
Life Insurance Salesmen (shaded area). g 


nents, the overlapping being only one. Another interesting point is 
that the most favorable critical score for dividing the groups is 
near the zero point in each case. 

The total composite score was obtained for the secondary 
groups. The interquartile ranges are presented in Fig. 10. The 
mechanical groups include the Industries seniors, ’21 and ’22, Car- 
negie Institute of Technology; Commercial Engineering and Me- 
chanical Engineering seniors, ’21, Carnegie Institute of Tech- 
nology; and Mechanical Engineering seniors, ’22, Case School of 


gI 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 


-@ 


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92 MAX FREYD 


Applied Science. The sales groups include the entire membership 
of the Life Insurance Schools of Spring, 1920-21, and Fall and 
Winter, 1921-22; and the salesmen of the Harrison Real Estate 
Corporation, the Burroughs Adding Machine Company, and the 
Cleveland Discount Company. For further information about 
these groups, see Chapter I. The Westinghouse seniors were a 
composite group, some being salesmen and some mechanics. Most 
of them neglected to state their occupation. Of the three making 
the lowest scores, two were draftsmen (the only two in the group), 
and of the three making the highest positive scores, one was a 
salesman and the other a sales correspondent (the only ones in the 
group). 

The outstanding feature of this figure (Fig. 10) is the fact that 
there is no overlapping of the interquartile ranges of the sales and 
mechanical groups. The overlapping of the actual distributions is 
less than one-fourth, which may include all those individuals who 
are vocationally misplaced. 

Another feature is the fact that the best critical score remains 
around the zero point. 

There is a tendency toward bimodality in the distribution curve 
of total scores for all groups (Fig. 11c) although the tendency 
is not marked. The modes correspond very roughly to the medians 
of the two main groups. Fig. 11a and Fig.11b show the complete 
distribution curves for the mechanical and sales groups. It is clear 
from the curve for the mechanical group that if there were more 
individuals in the group its mode would be around —3. If the 
numbers in the two groups were equal the bimodality of the curve 
for all cases (Fig. 11c) would be accentuated. 


SUMMARY 


Two important points are presented in this chapter. 

(1) A method is explained for arriving at a scoring method 
for differentiating groups. : 

(2) A scoring method for differentiating salesmen from men 
who are mechanically inclined, is presented. 

The main purpose of the chapter is to show how the results ob- 
tained in this study may be applied to practical problems in voca- 


93 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 


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04 MAX FREYD 


tional guidance. By the use of this scoring method, we can discover 
the inclinations of any individual as regards mechanical or social 
types of occupation, and advise him accordingly. 

From the standpoint of the mere study of the personality of any 
individual the results of this scoring method may be of interest. 
The scoring method not only places the individual vocationally, 
but places him with regard to constellations of personality traits 
and interests. 


CHAr Ti RsVil 


SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 


There is nothing in the results submitted to prove the existence 
of types of people; rather can we conclude that extremes exist with 
regard to any trait or combination of traits. If we assume the 
normal probability distribution for any trait or combination of 
traits, the persons lying beyond sigma, to be dogmatic, may be 
said to belong to extremes. We find some evidence for a bimodal 
distribution, which Thorndike sets up as a criterion of types, in 
the distribution curves of total scores. In general, though, the evi- 
dence is against the existence of types. The great majority of peo- 
ple have no pronounced tendencies which warrant their placement 
in extremes, but only show leanings toward one or another of ex- 
tremes. Leanings toward extremes are of psychological value, and 
in a sense this study has shown how they may be approached and 
utilized. The importance has been shown of a distribution of ten- 
dencies with mechanical inclinations at one extreme shading off 
into social inclinations at the other extreme, and to some extent the 
personality traits correlated with these tendencies have been deter- 
mined. 

The measures of personality used in this study are open to criti- 
cism on several points. The test results may be interpreted as 
measures of any one or more of a number of traits. The question- 
naires may have been completed without regard for the truth. 
The ratings may have been invalidated because of a bias in favor 
of the persons rated, or because of errors of self-estimation. These 
objections are not fatal, since the interpretations of the function 
measured by any test will vary within rather narrow limits, and 
the interpretation placed on the tests cannot therefore be greatly 
in error; the purpose of the questionnaires was not so obvious as 
to indicate the most profitable direction of falsification; and if the 
raters were biased in favor of the subjects of the experiment, this 


06 MAX FREYD 


bias would be a factor common to all groups of raters and if neces- 
sary could be corrected for, but in any case this would not change 
the standing of any group relative to the other groups. If the 
ratings are not very accurate for any individual, they are at least 
sufficiently accurate for group comparisons. The most effective 
contradictions to the criticisms of the means by which the results 
were obtained, come from the fact that the tendency is for the re- 
sults obtained with the three sets of forms to corroborate each 
other, and from the fact that the resulting description of the per- 
sonality of the extremes of the two groups is psychologically 
consistent. 

The following table summarizes the basis for the conclusions 
drawn as to differences in personality between the two groups. 


TABLE V 

TRAITS TESTS QUESTIONNAIRES RATINGS 
Salesmen are more 
Excitable Bratt. 4 
Self-confident Trait 10 
Open-hearted Trait 15 
Quick to make friends 3:40 Trait 14 
Present-minded Traits? 
Good-natured 4:fat men, “Life” Trait 2 
Adaptable Pt. 6, disguises Trait 13 
Talkative Trait 18 
Neat in dress ‘sh Draitens 
Less self-conscious Pt. 9, ratio POT IS SY Trait 7 
Credulous or suggestible Pt. 11 296, 632 06. 

; és 5:5, 7) 16 
Objective or universal Kent.-Ros. com- 

in their verbal ass’ns. monality 
Careless of details ty 
Deficient in fine motor Piaziand Piss 
coordination 
Less conceited Agreements between 
checks in Pts. 3 
and 9 

Persevering Pt. 6, letters 


How these differences in personality arose cannot be answered 
in detail by examining the answers to the questionnaires. The pos- 
sible explanation of the factors which operated to place the men 
in the opposing extremes of occupation and personality are as fol- 
lows: 

(1) The mechanically inclined men were more often of non- 
American or non-British extraction. Not being of the same stock 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED 97 


as the majority of the inhabitants of the country, and not having 
the advantages of training by parents of that stock, they were 
handicapped in their adaptation to society and tended therefore 
to enter occupations where mechanical rather than social ability 
was of prime importance. 

(2) The early family history of the mechanically inclined men 
points to a less healthful and cheerful environment than that of 
the salesmen. The indications are that the mechanics students were 
dissatisfied with the financial status of their families, the charac- 
teristics of their companions, and the generally cheerless tone of 
their environment. They tend to claim they were treated worse than 
their brothers and sisters, and engaged in more fist-fights than the 
salesmen. 

(3) Maternal influence was exerted predominantly on the me- 
chanically inclined men and paternal influence on the salesmen. 
How these influences shaped their personality is an obscure psycho- 
logical problem. Without going unnecessarily deeply into the pos- 
sible psychoanalytic explanation, the conclusion seems warranted 
that the mechanics student was very early rebuffed by his human 
environment, owing perhaps to a greater mechanical than social 
intelligence, and subjected himself largely to the influence of the 
person who naturally took the deepest interest in him,—his mother. 
The mother’s influence may have caused him to become less vig- 
orously adapted’ toward society, but a more plausible interpreta- 
tion of the facts is that the same factors which caused in the me- 
chanics student an attachment to his mother, gave rise to his per- 
sonality traits and caused him to enter a mechanical occupation. 
The influence of the mother may be accepted as an intensifying 
factor in shaping personality, and as subordinate to the fact that a 
greater proportion of the men were of foreign stock and in general 
grew up ina less fortunate environment than the salesmen. There 
is nothing to indicate that race is responsible for choice of occu- 
pation or for personality differences such as we have been study- 
ing. We should probably find socially inclined and mechanically 
inclined individuals distributed in the same proportions in every 
race and nationality, but we should also expect to find among a 
submerged minority of different stock a greater proportion of men 


98 MAX FREYD 


of mechanical inclinations, simply because they have not the train- 
ing, appearance, and other qualities necessary to exert social in- 
fluence. In America, especially, there is a marked tendency to look 
with distrust on foreigners or those bearing foreign names. 

(4) There remains, however, a large per cent of men of me- 
chanical tendencies who are of native stock. The explanation given 
in the preceding paragraph will not account for the differences be- 
tween them and the salesmen. The most suitable explanation is to 
describe them as lacking in social ability and possessing mechanical 
ability, and the salesmen as possessing social ability and lacking 
mechanical ability. Thorndike (21) postulates three kinds of intel- 
ligence: mechanical, social, and conceptual, represented among 
others by mechanics, salesmen, and engineers, respectively. The 
mechanics students may dominate in mechanical intelligence and 
be weak in social intelligence, and the salesmen display the opposite 
tendency. It is the writer’s belief that conceptual intelligence is not 
of a distinct sort, but displays itself in both mechanical intelligence 
and social intelligence. Social intelligence may be conceived as the 
ability to manipulate human beings so as to accomplish definite 
ends, in contradistinction to mechanical intelligence, which is the 
ability to manipulate machines. But conceptual intelligence is de-: 
manded in both of these processes. Social intelligence and mechan- 
ical intelligence are the only ones which may be distinguished be- 
havioristically. Social intelligence is perhaps best illustrated by 
pointing to the politician, the orator, or the salesman. The ma- 
chinist or the draftsman illustrate the possession of mechanical 
intelligence. The reactions of human beings and machines are of 
not quite the same nature, and require a different technique. On 
its passive side, social intelligence is shown in social suggestibility, 
identification with the crowd in associations and beliefs, in suscep- 
tibility to “being sold,” in apparent credulity. The credulous per- 
son, or the person who appears to be credulous, is more apt to 
make a favorable impression on others than the person who is 
open in his disbeliefs. 

(5) At least one of the traits displayed by the mechanics stu- 
dents may be compensatory in nature. I refer here to conceit, ap- 
parently measured by the means explained in Chapter II, and also 


THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED ~—99 


shown in the statements of the industries students that they won 
a majority of the fights they engaged in as children. A realization 
on the part of many of the mechanics students that they lacked 
certain of the elements of social ability may have wittingly or un- 
wittingly caused them at least to assume the attitude of possessing 
those elements. Conceit is a typical compensatory attitude. Incre- 
dulity may in a sense be compensatory. It is an attitude assumed 
by those who realize their weaknesses and are consequently on 
guard that no one takes advantage of them. It is less easy to find 
examples of compensation among the salesmen, since it is a lack 
of social adaptation that is usually compensated for. Lack of 
mechanical ability would be less often a cause of social mal-adapta- 
tion than lack of sociability, and it is the realization that one is 
socially poorly adapted that gives rise to compensation. Persever- 
ance on the part of the salesmen may possibly be a compensatory 
mechanism, and their lack of conceit may well be considered as 
over-correction lest they be judged as conceited in the slightest 
degree. 


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THE SOCIALLY AND THE MECHANICALLY INCLINED _to1 


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